UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA 
AT   LOS  ANGELES 


LECTURES 


UPON 


PORTIONS      OF      HISTORY, 

WITH 

HISTORICAL    OUTLINES 

FOR    THE    USE    OF    SCHOOLS, 

COMPILED     FROM     THE     PRINTED     CHARTS     AND 
UNPUBLISHED      MANUSCRIPTS 

OF       THE      LATE 

HENRY^OSTWICK, 

LECTURER    ON     HISTORY     IN     THE     CITY     OF     NEW-YORK. 


N  E  W  -  Y  O  R  K  : 
PRINTED      BY      HENRY      LUDWIG, 

WO.      72,      V  E  S  E  Y  -  S  T  R  E  E  T. 

1  838. 


ENTERED,  according  to  the  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1833, 

By  Samuel  B.  Ruggles,  Esq. 
In  the  Clerk's  Office  of  the  District  Court  for  the  Southern 

DISTRICT    OF    NEW-YORK. 


PREFACE. 

~J 

IN  the  accompanying  volume  the  reader  is  presented  with 

Three  Historical  Lectures,   prepared  for  the  press  by  the  late 

HENRY  BOSTWICK,  for  many  years  an  eminent  lecturer  on  History 

in  the   city  of  New- York.      Strongly  marked  by  the  accurate 

thought  and  spirited   expression  which   characterized    Mr.   Bost- 

wick's  style,  they  present  a  rapid  and  singularly  original  outline 

of  History  from  the  creation  of  the  world  to  the  time  of  Philip 

of  Macedon,  intended  as  the  introduction  to  an   etxensive  series 

[    which  the  author  unhappily  did  not   live  to  complete.     He  died 

<   in   the   city    of  NewT-York,    deeply   lamented  by  his   numerous 

Q    pupils  and  friends,  June,  1836,  in  the  49th  year  of  his  age. 

These  lectures  are  followed  by 

1.  An  Epitome  of  Ancient  Geography. . 

2.  An  Outline  of  History  from  the  creation  to  3500  A.  M. 

3.  A  continuation  of  the  Outline  from  3500  to  the  time  of 
Augustus. 

4.  A  Chronological  Index  of  the  most  important  events  from 
A.  M.  3250  to  4004. 

5.  A  further  continuation  of  the  Outline,  &c.,  to  the  reign  of 
Charlemagne,  A.  D.  800. 

6.  A  Chronological  Index  from  the  birth  of  Christ  to  the  reign 
of  Charlemagne. 


IV  PREFACE. 

7.  Fragments  of  History  of  Spain,  Gaul,  Italy,  after  the 
time  of  Charlemagne. 

8.  A  Table  of  European  Sovereigns  from  800  to  the  present 
time. 

This  portion  of  the  volume  is  a  compilation  in  part  from  Mr. 
Bostwick's  printed  historical  charts,  and  in  part  from  notes  of  his 
unwritten  lectures,  taken  by  his  pupils. 

The  Appendix  contains  a  Synchronistic  Table  of  events  of 
ancient  history  ;  a  table  of  ancient  kings,  fabulous  and  historical, 
with  the  Roman  emperors  divided  into  classes  ;  a  Brief  Sketch, 
of  the  Schools  of  Philosophy  among  the  Greeks  ;  with  an  account 
of  the  Origin  and  Division  of  the  Hellenic  races ;  the  whole 
designed  to  accompany  and  illustrate  Mr.  Bostwick's  Historical 
Atlas  for  the  use  of  classes  and  schools. 

Two  Charts  have  been  superadded,  the  first  comprehending  a 
combination  of  HISTORY  AND  CHRONOLOGY,  corresponding  with 
Chart  No.  1,  and  the  second  with  Chart  No.  5,  of  Mr.  Bost- 
wick's Atlas. 


' 


OUTLINE   OF   HISTORY, 

FROM    THE 

Creation  of  the  World  to  the  time  of  Philip  of  Macedon, 

IN    THKKE    LECTURES. 


LECTURE    I. 

THE  history  of  the  early  ages  of  the  world  is  involved  in  the  gloom 
of  uncertainty,  that  necessarily  results  from  the  infancy  and  ignorance 
of  nations,  when  letters  are  unknown,  and  events  pass  unrecorded. 
The  sacred  annals  have  preserved  from  oblivion  the  transactions  of 
one  small  nation,  the  Hebrews,  with  slight  and  occasional  notices  of 
the  bordering  States;  but  even  these  annals,  adequate,  indeed,  to  their 
grand  design,  fail,  in  a  thousand  particulars,  to  satisfy  our  busy  curi- 
osity. We  are  left  in  irretrievable  perplexity  in  attempting  to  adjust 
the  doubtful  points  of  chronology. 

In  this  dilemma,  since  we  must  not  overlook  such  a  lapse  of  centu- 
ries, we  have  to  resort  to  those  faint  gleams  of  light,  which  barely  re- 
deem us  from  total  darkness ;  and  we  must  often  submit  to  reiterate 
the  mere  conjectures  of  others,  instead  of  delivering  the  convictions  of 
our  own  minds.  Curiosity  expects  it,  and  deference  for  others  author- 
izes it. 

Adopting  the  received  chronology,  a  period  of  four  thousand  and 
four  years  fills  the  dreary  interval  from  the  creation  to  the  birth  of 
Christ;  and,  excepting  the  last  five  hundred  years  of  this  period,  pro- 
fane history  is  either  silent  or  doubtful  for  all  the  rest. 

A  cloud  of  uncertainty  obscures  the  most  important  transactions ; 
and  even  where  the  leading  events  can  be  traced,  the  detail  only  pre- 
sents a  field  for  vague  conjecture,  and  absurd  romance. 

The  first  two  thousand  years  defy  the  research  of  the  profane  histo- 
rian, and  expose  his  curiosity  to  ridicule.  From  the  Mosaic  account, 
admitting  the  Hebrew  copy,  Adam,  commencing  with  the  world,  mea- 
sures off  930  years  of  the  first  thousand.  From  the  death  of  Adam,  in 
930,  one  hundred  and  twenty-six  years  carry  us  down  to  the  birth  of 
Noah,  in  1056,  whose  protracted  years,  descending  to  200(5,  roll  us 
through  the  second  thousand  years,  marked  only  by  two  great  events, 
the  flood  in  1650,  and  the  dispersion,  one  hundred  years  after  the  flood 
in  1756.  The  events  of  the  Flood,  when  Noah  was  six  hundred  years 
old,  are  distinctly  recorded;  but  the  scriptural,  as  well  as  profane  ac- 
counts, shed  but  a  faint  glimmering  light  on  the  particulars  of  the 
Dispersion  in  1756. 

1 


2  OUTLINE     OF     HISTORY.  [LECT.  I. 

A  majority  of  critics  agree  in  fixing  the  scene  of  man's  creation  in 
Chaldea,  on  the  Euphrates :  but,  since  the  sacred  volume  has  not  de- 
cided, we  may  safely  abandon  the  inquiry  to  the  vain  ambition  of  men, 
who,  disdaining  the  road  that  lies  open  to  truth,  delight  to  roam  in  the 
regions  of  novelty  and  conjecture.  The  example  of  others,  and  many 
passages  in  Scripture,  warrant  our  assuming  Chaldea  as  the  centre 
from  which  the  scattering  sons  of  Noah,  and  perhaps  that  patriarch 
himself,  were  dispersed  after  the  confusion  of  tongues,  into  different 
regions  and  climes,  to  people  the  unknown  countries  of  the  earth. 

In  this  important  migration,  we  have  distinct  authority,  in  the  sacred 
books,  to  follow  Ham  and  his  posterity  into  Arabia,  Canaan,  and 
Egypt.  The  name  of  Canaan,  the  accursed  son  of  Ham,  was  commu- 
nicated to  the  little  country  where  his  eleven  sons  settled, — the  proge- 
nitors of  eleven  Canaanitish  tribes ;  (see  chart.)  Three  centuries 
(327  years)  after  the  Dispersion,  the  appearance  of  Abraham  in  this 
land,  and  the  promise  of  God  to  him,  fixed  upon  it  the  name  of  "  Pro- 
mised Land."  The  conquest  of  the  land  by  Abraham's  descendants, 
the  Israelites,  gave  it  the  name  of  Israel,  while  it  transferred  the  whole 
country  from  the  posterity  of  Ham  to  the  posterity  of  Shem,  from 
whom -Abraham  descended,  the  chosen  father  of  a  peculiar  people. 

With  respect  to  Japhet,  we  must  be  content  to  despatch  him  into 
Asia  Minor  and  Europe,  and  adopt  him  as  the  father  of  the  early  na- 
tions dispersed  through  those  countries,  without  entangling  our  narra- 
tive with  minute  genealogy,  or  putting  credulity  to  the  severe  test  of 
etymological  refinement. 

Shem,  as  the  particular  ancestor  of  Abraham,  stands,  of  course,  in 
the  patriarchal  line,  and  claims  more  attention :  we  distribute  his  sons 
between  those  of  Ham  and  Japhet,  through  a  succession  of  states, 
reaching  from  the  Levant,  indefinitely  into  the  East.  Aram  gave  his 
name  to  the  little  country  since  called  Syria,  north  of  Canaan,  and  to 
Padan-Aram,  distinguished  from  this, — another  country  between  the 
Euphrates  and  Tigris,  since  called  Mesopotamia, — Ashur  is  now  As- 
syria;  Elam  is  Persia;  and  Shinaar,  or  Chaldea,  seems  to  have  de- 
rived its  inhabitants  from  Arphaxad,  without  assuming  his  name. 
This  last  son  of  Shem  was  the  ancestor  of  Abraham,  and  Abraham  is 
expressly  said  to  have  come  from  Chaldea. 

A  thousand  years,  (from  2000  to  3000,)  commences  with  the  birth  of 
Abraham,  in  2008 ;  and  its  close  witnesses  Solomon  arrayed  in  all 
his  glory,  swaying  the  sceptre  of  Israel,  and  the  nations  conquered  by 
David.  Moses  flourishes;  and  the  Grecian  States  were  founded  half 
way  between  Abraham  and  Solomon,  aboyt  2500.  The  peaceful  resi- 
dence of  Abraham,  Isaac,  and  Jacob,  among  the  Canaanites,  from 
2083  to  2298,  a  period  of  two  hundred  and  fifteen  years,  added  to  the 
residence  in  Egypt  of  the  same  number  of  years,  makes  the  sum  of 
430,  from  the  calling  to  the  Exodus,  or  deliverance  from  Egypt  by 
Moses,  in  2513.  Moses  had  lived  forty  years  in  Egypt  at  the  court  of 
Pharaoh,  forty  years  with  his  father-in-law  Jethro,  in  Midian,  when 
he  commenced  his  journey  through  the  wilderness,  which  lasted  ano- 
ther forty  years.  He  died  on  the  east  side  of  the  Jordan,  having  con- 
quered the  country  on  that  side,  and  Joshua  crossed  the  Jordan,  and 
completed  the  conquest  of  Canaan. 


LECT.  I.]  OUTLINE     OF     HISTORY. 

The  country  took  the  name  of  Israel,  being  divided  into  twelve 
tribes,  corresponding  to  the  number  of  Jacob's  sons.  No  particular 
form  of  government  was  instituted ;  the  laws  of  Moses  established  at 
Sinai  were  in  force,  and  the  authority  of  the  priests  was  respected. 
Extraordinary  circumstances  raised  up  extraordinary  personages  to 
deliver  the  nation  from  the  bondage  and  servitude  into  which  they  were 
frequently  reduced  by  the  idolatrous  nations  around  them.  These  ex- 
traordinary persons  were  styled  Judges ;  their  authority  usually  ex- 
pired with  the  occasion  that  called  it  forth.  From  the  historical  book 
called  Judges,  we  derive  our  imperfect  knowledge  of  this  loose  and 
disorderly  period  of  more  than  three  hundred  and  fifty  years,  from 
Joshua  to  Saul,  the  first  king  of  Israel,  whose  reign  is  computed  to 
have  commenced  in  2909. 

The  idolatry  of  the  neighbouring  tribes  corrupted  the  children  of 
Israel ;  discord  and  degeneracy  among  themselves  exposed  them  to 
the  snares  of  their  enemies,  and  they  often  groaned  in  cruel  bondage. 
The  Philistines  on  the  south-west,  sprung  from  Misraim,  a  son  of 
Ham,  who  settled  in  Egypt.  The  Syrians,  or  Aramites,  on  the  north, 
descended  from  Aram,  a  son  of  Shem.  Six  other  surrounding  tribes 
branched  from  the  same  stock  with  Abraham,  and,  of  course,  arose 
after  his  removal  into  this  land.  The  Moabites  and  Ammonites  from 
Lot ;  the  Ishmaelites  and  Midianites  from  Abraham  directly ;  the 
Edomites  and  Amalekites  from  Esau,  the  grandson  of  Abraham. 

Saul,  the  first  king  of  Israel,  was  unable  to  remedy  the  disorders 
and  distress  into  which  the  transgressions  of  his  countrymen  had 
plunged  them.  The  sceptre  that  fell  from  his  feeble  hands,  passed 
into  those  of  his  illustrious  rival  and  successor,  David.  In  a  busy 
reign  of  forty  years,  that  great  and  warlike  monarch  introduced  order 
into  the  government,  established  commerce,  subdued  the  tribes  that 
had  so  often  opposed  Israel,  and  erected  a  splendid  monarchy.  The 
reign  of  his  son,  Solomon,  was  peaceful  and  splendid ;  commerce  still 
flourished,  and  the  most  magnificent  structure  arose  to  adorn  his  capi- 
tal. But  the  glory  of  Israel  expired  with  the  son  of  David,  in  3029  ; 
discord  and  dismemberment  rent  the  kingdom,  and  disgraced  the  reign 
of  Rehoboam,  the  son  of  Solomon.  Desolation  and  captivity  will  fol- 
low ;  but  we  must  turn  from  the  disgusting  picture,  to  trace  the  origin 
and  revolutions  of  other  States. 

The  early  origin  of  the  Egyptian  monarchy  is  attested  by  the  Jew- 
ish annals  ;  a  remote  and  fabulous  antiquity  is  the  vain  boast  of  Egyp- 
tian priests.  We  can  imagine  every  thing  for  early  ages ;  nothing 
can  be  denied  ;  nothing  can  be  authenticated.  Wisdom  is  silent;  but 
the  prerogatives  of  loquacious  folly  may  be  indulged  without  harm. 
We  need  not  wage  war  against  the  random  speculations  about  un- 
searchable things,  merely  because  we  choose  to  decline  them.  Let  us 
be  employed  about  known  realities  ;  freely  resign  to  others  the  honour 
of  guessing,  precisely,  when  each  early  throne  was  established,  and  of 
divining  the  names  of  a  race  of  monarchs,  their  joys,  their  griefs,  their 
glories,  their  disgraces,  their  conquests,  and  their  overthrows.  The 
curiosity  must  be  ardent  in  pursuit,  that  is  not  sobered  by  reading  and 
research.  Let  it  rage. 

Independent  of  Jewish  testimony,  the  proud  structures  of  Egypt  are 


4  OUTLINE     OF     HISTORY.  [LECT.  1. 

monuments  of  time  and  labour,  as  they  are  of  the  absurd  ambition  of 
kings,  and  the  slavish  stupidity  of  their  people.  There  is  no  doubt 
that  the  country  was  early  populous.  Rich  in  soil  and  spontaneous 
resources,  men  could  not  fail  to  multiply.  The  increase  of  the  Israel- 
ites during1  the  bondage,  exceeds  the  bounds  of  imagination.  Many 
events  must  have  happened  in  such  a  country ;  but  who  now  can  re- 
claim such  events  from  the  oblivion  to  which  the  ignorance  of  the  age 
consigned  them.  Yet  many  authors  have  pursued  the  subject,  and  un- 
folded many  wonders  with  an  air  of  confidence,  and  we  need  not  choose 
to  deprive  them  of  their  pleasure  or  their  laurels. 

Shall  we  let  Semiramis  sleep?  the  conquering  heroine  of  those  re- 
mote ages,  the  mighty  monarch  of  Assyria?  It  is  doubtful  whether  her 
first  conquest  was  over  her  husband  or  her  son.  After  that,  her  bio- 
graphers seem  to  think  that  her  conquests  knew  no  bounds.  The  de- 
serts, rivers,  mountains  of  the  distant  east,  could  not  withstand  her  in- 
vading hosts.  Where  she  found  armies  to  lead  forth,  or  people  to  con- 
quer, could  not  be  easily  determined,  as  her  time  is  fixed  before  that  of 
Abraham,  who  conquered  four  eastern  kings  with  four  hundred  men  ; 
and  one  of  these  kings  must  have  been  a  successor  of  Semiramis.  The 
people  seem  to  have  been  thinly  scattered  over  the  face  of  the  earth,  till 
long  after  the  time  of  Abraham  ;  and  it  is  obvious  from  the  Jewish  re- 
cords, that  no  great  eastern  monarchy  could  have  existed  till  after  the 
time  of  Solomon.  The  conclusion  is,  that  from  Abraham  to  Solomon, 
men  were  emigrating,  and  forming  new  settlements  and  petty  king- 
doms, but  that  no  great  eastern  monarchy  yet  existed. 

The  foundation  of  Rome  was  laid  in  a  later  period,  3250 ;  but  the 
Grecian  States  rise  in  the  days  of  Abraham,  Isaac,  Jacob,  Joseph, 
Moses.  In  their  days  the  Grecian  gods  probably  lived  or  reigned  on 
earth :  their  offspring  were  too  numerous  to  accompany  their  divine 
parents  to  their  celestial  abodes ;  but  on  earth,  the  descendants  of  Ju- 
piter, Mars,  Vulcan,  Venus,  with  the  inferior  lustre  of  demigods,  heroes, 
kings,  &c.,  enjoyed  and  indulged  the  prerogatives  due  to  their  illus- 
trious pedigree. 

From  Moses  to  David,  Israel,  under  its  Judges,  presents  a  gloomy 
picture  of  brutal  manners,  and  human  depravity.  The  same^age  in 
Greece,  while  it  shocks  us  with  the  most  horrid  exhibitions  of  savage 
ferocity,  and  licentious  pleasure,  at  the  same  time  confounds  our  ima- 
ginations with  the  most  brilliant  displays  of  wild  and  heroic  adventures, 
that  the  frantic  rage  of  ambition  could  suggest  to  disordered  minds! 
The  Grecian  heroes  directed  their  fierce  attacks  with  equal  fury* 
against  men  and  devouring  monsters.  Glory  prompted,  passion  spur- 
red them  to  the  slaughter;  generosity,  sympathy,  revenge,  might  often 
supply  the  motive  or  excuse ;  but  no  consideration  could  ever  abate 
the  rage  of  battle,  or  assuage  the  fierceness  of  the  savage  bosom. 

These  wild  adventures  come  down  to  us  in  the  dress  of  the  Grecian 
muses,  adorned  with  fiction  engrafted  upon  fiction,  by  successive  bards, 
whose  raptures  confound  the  calm  serenity  of  a  mind  composed  to  suit 
the  settled  state  of  modern  times. 

We  may  weep  or  laugh  at  the  follies  of  man,  according  to  our  con- 
stitutional bias  or  occasional  mood.  It  is  certain,  that  without  a  sub- 
ject and  an  impulse,  Homer's  muse  would  have  been  silent. 


LECT.  I.]  OUTLINE     OP     HISTORY.  5 

We  are  unable  to  name  the  son  of  Japhet,  who  first  crossed  the 
narrow  seas,  and  trod  the  enchanted  shores  of  Greece.  We  may  pre- 
tend to  tell  the  year  when  the  several  monarchies  began  ;  but  the  foun- 
dation of  a  monarchy  supposes  a  previous  population.  Perhaps  the 
kingdom  of  Sicyon  was  erected  as  early  as  the  1915th  year  of  the 
world,  ninety-three  years  before  the  birth  of  Abraham.  Who  can  dispute 
that  Argos  was  founded  in  2183,  the  very  year  of  Abraham's  death  ? 

It  is  at  least  harmless  to  believe  with  the  Greek  writers,  that  the 
Athenian,  Spartan,  Theban,  Trojan  monarchies,  commenced  in  the 
time  of  Moses,  about  2500. 

We  need  not  quarrel  with  the  fifty  daughters  of  Danaus,  married  to 
the  fifty  sons  of  his  brother  Egyptus;  and  it  would  be  useless  to  la- 
ment the  fate  of  forty-nine,  out  of  the  fifty  bridegrooms  sacrificed  by 
their  brides,  since  one  was  spared  to  propagate  the  royal  line. 

The  throne  of  Argos,  founded  2183,  was  usurped  in  the  time  of 
Moses,  by  this  same  Danaus,  an  emigrant  from  Egypt,  from  whom 
sprang  Perseus  and  Hercules.  Cecrops,  another  Egyptian  emigrant, 
was  the  founder  of  Athens.  The  Phenician  Cadmus,  in  pursuit  of  his 
sister  Europa,  if  you  please,  built  Thebes,  in  Boeotia,  and  perhaps  in- 
troduced into  Greece  an  alphabet,  before  unknown  to  the  savage  nations. 
The  blaze  of  glory  and  splendour  that  broke  out  in  Greece  in  a 
later  period,  and  illumined  the  two  centuries,  from  3t500  to  3700, 
arouses  our  ardent  curiosity  to  investigate  their  early  history,  and  ex- 
plore the  various  causes  that  were  then  conspiring  to  their  future  lustre. 
Bold  fictions,  or  ridiculous  conceits,  may  satisfy  credulity ;  but  they 
disgust  the  sober  inquirer,  who  demands  well-attested  facts,  and  pro- 
bable conclusions.  Herodotus,  the  first  profane  historian,  begaa  to 
write  when  the  glory  of  Greece  was  nearly  at  its  summit.  When  he 
records  the  events  that  passed  before  him,  he  commands  our  implicit 
belief.  When  he  relates  the  tales  of  antiquity,  painfully  collected  in 
his  travels  and  researches,  we  scrutinize,  and  adopt  only  what  is  pro- 
bable. In  investigations  of  this  nature,  we  ought  to  ascertain,  as  soon 
as  possible,  what  lies  hidden  from  human  research,  and  direct  our  faith- 
ful aim  to  the  discovery  of  useful  and  probable  facts.  This  rigid  prin- 
ciple rejects  at  once,  a  cumbrous  mass  of  fiction  and  folly,  and  advances 
us  directly  forward  in  our  pursuit.  Let  us  not  be  understood  as  dis- 
paraging the  reading  of  fiction,  because  the  creeds  and  superstitions 
of  mankind  form  a  necessary  branch  of  study,  and  make  a  part  of 
history.  It  is  only  a  rigid  criterion  that  we  recommend,  by  which, 
while  we  read,  we  can  separate  truth  from  falsehood  or  folly. 

That  Greece  was  peopled  by  emigrants  from  Asia,  seems  to  be  uni- 
versally conceded;  the  exact  time  is  unknown  and  unimportant.  We 
care  not  whether  whole  colonies  passed  over  at  different  times,  or  whe- 
ther there  was  a  constant  tide  of  emigration.  The  emigration  of  Dan- 
aus, Cecrops,  and  Cadmus,  in  the  time  of  Moses,  presents  an  inquiry 
of  more  importance,  as  they  are  said  to  have  imported  with  them  into 
Greece,  the  arts,  institutions,  and  superstitions  of  Egypt  and  Phenicia  ; 
but  the  tale  is  incumber-d  with  fiction,  and  perplexed  with  difficulties. 
As  Greece  was  a  country  that  offered  great  allurements  to  strangers, 
the  most  sober  conclusion  seems  to  be,  that  emigration  flowed  to  it  from 
Asia  unceasingly,  till  the  different  communities  were  filled,  the  national 
character  formed,  and  national  jealousies  imbibed.  Some  foreign  su- 


6  OUTLINE     OF     HISTORY.  [LECT.  I. 

perstitions  may  have  blended  with  their  own ;  but  we'may  venture  to 
advance  the  opinion  that  the  whole  structure  of  Grecian  mythology 
was  conceived  and  reared  in  Greece,  in  the  face  of  all  the  vague  specu- 
lations of  writers  who  would  derive  it  from  Egypt  and  Asia.  The 
Grecian  character,  as  well  as  Grecian  transactions,  arose,  naturally, 
from  the  enterprise  of  emigrants,  the  constant  intercourse  of  strangers, 
the  facilities  that  sea  and  land  offered  for  such  intercourse,  soil,  cli- 
mate, face  of  the  country,  &c. ;  and  their  fiction  naturally  sprung  from 
their  ardent  character,  and  wild  adventures. 

From  the  time  of  Cadmus,  2500  to  3000,  we  have  the  Calydonian 
chase,  Argonautic  expedition,  Theban  wars,  expulsion  of  the  Herac- 
lidae, or  race  of  Hercules,  from  the  Peloponnesus,  by  the  race  of  Pelops; 
the  Trojan  war,  the  recovery  of  the  Peloponnesus  by  the  Heraclidae, 
the  migration  of  ^Eolian,  Dorian,  and  Ionian  Greeks  into  Asia  Minor, 
and  the  abolition  of  monarchy  in  many  States  of  Greece.  To  pro- 
nounce all  these  adventures  mere  fiction,  is  as  absurd  as  it  is  difficult  to 
separate  truth  from  embellishment.  The  Argonautic  expedition  from 
Greece  to  Colchis,  is  an  enigma,  to  exercise  the  sagacity  of  men  who 
can  find  no  other  employment.  The  Calydonian  chase  terminated  in 
the  tragic  death  of  a  furious  wild  boar,  sent  by  the  gods  to  ravage  JEto- 
lia,  and  chased  by  all  the  princes  of  the  age,  afford  ing  a  sublime  theme 
for  heroic  song.  The  two  Theban  wars  signify  the  mutual  slaughter 
of  Theban  and  Argive  heroes,  breathing  vengeance  for  mutual  inju- 
ries; and  happily,  the  muses  have  perpetuated  the  bloody  scenes.  The 
expulsion  of  the  Heraclidas  descended  from  Danaus  and  Perseus,  was, 
indeed,  a  lamentable  injustice  done  to  that  illustrious  race,  to  be  expi- 
ated afterwards  by  the  descendants  of  Pelops,  the  guilty  offenders. 
Agamemnon,  king  of  Argos,  Menelaus,  king  of  Sparta,  in  right  of 
queen  Helen, — these  were  of  the  race  of  Pelops,  heroes  of  the  Trojan 
war.  Paris,  son  of  Priam,  king  of  Troy,  ought  to  have  been  ashamed 
to  abuse  the  hospitality  of  Menelaus,  by  bearing  off  in  triumph  the  will- 
ing spouse  of  the  Spartan  king.  This  injury  was  enough  to  kindle 
the  flame  of  war,  and  provoke  a  wasting  siege  of  ten  years,  that  laid 
proud  Troy  in  smoking  ruins.  The  closing  scene  of  this  tragedy 
occurred  in  2820. 

At  length,  just  eighty  years  later,  in  2900,  the  exiled  Heraclidae, 
after  countless  misadventures,  poured  into  the  Peloponnesus  at  differ- 
ent points,  accompanied  by  their  Dorian  allies,  in  superior  numbers, 
and  recovered  their  ancient  thrones  and  hereditary  territories.  Their 
triumphant  return  was  fruitful  in  events,  commotions,  and  emigrations, 
which  we  should  mark  with  careful  attention.  From  this  time  the 
Doric  population  and  character  prevailed  in  the  Peloponnesus,  and  the 
descendants  of  Hercules  swayed  the  sceptre,  while  those  who  fled 
formed  new  intermixtures,  and  new  colonies,  of  stupendous  fame.  The 
Achaians,  oppressed  by  the  invading  host,  fell  upon  the  lonians,  their 
neighbours,  and  drove  them  to  seek  new  settlements.  The  Athenians 
received  the  fugitives  in  such  numbers,  that  the  Ionian  character  and 
dialect  prevailed.  About  thirty  years  later,  2930,  Codrus,  the  last  king 
of  Athens,  following  the  suggestion  of  an  oracle,  rushed. into  battle,  and 
sought  death,  to  save  his  country  from  the  fierce  attack  of  the  Herac- 
lidae, who,  not  satisfied  with  the  recovery  of  the  Peloponnesus,  aimed  to 
subdue  their  neighbours.  With  Codrus,  monarchy  ended  at  Athens ; 


LECT  I.]  OUTLINE     OF     HISTORY.  7 

the  office  of  hereditary  archon  was  instituted  in  favour  of  one  of  his  sons; 
the  others  withdrew  in  disgust,  and  drawing  many  others  with  them, 
passed  over  into  Asia  Minor,  and  founded  an  Ionian  nation.  The 
JEolians  had  already  seated  themselves  further  north,  on  the  same 
coast ;  and  not  far  from  the  same  time,  some  wandering  Dorians  occu- 
pied the  coast  south  of  the  lonians. 

To  recapitulate  these  important  events.  The  Achaians  dispossessed 
the  lonians,  and  remained  in  the  Peloponnesus,  where  we  shall  see 
them  in  the  last  stage  of  Greece,  then,  for  the  first  time,  the  leading 
power,  making  the  last  stand  against  the  Romans.  The  banished 
lonians,  received  at  Athens,  impart  their  character  and  language.  On 
the  death  of  Codrus,  a  portion  of  them  settle  in  Asia  Minor,  where 
they,  as  well  as  the  ^Eolians  and  Dorians,  after  many  vicissitudes, 
will  become  a  numerous,  flourishing,  and  magnificent  people.  From 
this  time,  an  impulse  of  busy  enterprise  diffused  the  Grecian  name 
and  nation  throughout  every  coast  and  island  of  the  Mediterranean. 
From  this  time  we  no  longer  estimate  the  greatness  of  Greece  by  the 
narrow  limits  that  the  name  implies. 

For  five  hundred  years  after  3000,  Greece  is  not  inactive  ;  and  yet 
we  say  the  whole  five  hundred  years  is  nothing  but  preparation  and 
approach  to  the  splendid  scene  which  bursts  forth  in  3500. 

We  stand  at  3000,  and  take  a  rapid  review  of  five  hundred  years,  a 
period  that  affords  only  glimmering  light ;  but  it  is  the  dawn  of  a 
bright  day.  For  half  the  period  before  us,  that  is,  for  two  hundred 
and  fifty  years  after  3000,  the  Greeks  claim  but  a  small  share  of  our 
notice.  In  this  interval,  emigration  continues,  and  some  of  the  States 
new  model  their  government  and  laws.  Aristocratic  or  democratic 
institutions  are  substituted  for  monarchy  in  almost  every  State  except 
Sparta.  In  that  celebrated  city  reigned  jointly,  two  kings  of  the  race 
of  Hercules.  Lycurgus,  of  the  younger  branch,  established  his  fa- 
mous code  of  laws,  the  most  odious  and  pernicious  system  ever  devised 
by  man,  yet  the  theme  of  endless,  and  almost  unqualified  praise,  from 
the  days  of  Herodotus  to  our  own  time. 

Temperance  in  eating  and  drinking,  and  severity  of  manners,  are 
poor  apologies  for  virtue,  when  they  are  cultivated  for  purposes  of 
lawless  ambition.  We  must  admire  the  health  and  hardihood  that  are 
the  fruits  of  useful  industry;  but  the  labour  of  the  Spartans  was  in  the 
field  of  blood  and  battle,  or  in  the  painful  exercise  that  prepared  them 
to  brave  death  for  the  lust  of  dominion.  Unhappy  captives  reduced 
to  wretched  slavery,  performed  those  necessary  labours  in  the  field, 
and  in  the  household,  which  their  Spartan  lords  despised.  We 
all  admit  that  intemperate  luxury  was  banished  from  Sparta;  so 
was  every  liberal  art,  and  every  liberal  thought.  Who  can  name  a 
Spartan  poet,  philosopher,  orator,  historian,  or  artist?  But  we  are  told 
that  Spartans  loved  their  country  ;  that  is  a  vulgar  merit,  common  to 
all  mankind.  But  how  did  they  treat  their  neighbours  ?  Let  the  poor 
Messenians,  and  all  the  States  of  Greece  give  the  reply- 

3228  is  the  vulgar  era  of  the  Olympic  games.  Their  real  origin  is 
concealed  in  the  mist  of  antiquity.  We  know  not  the  time  of  their 
commencement,  nor  at  what  particular  periods  they  were  modified,  to 
embrace  new  objects.  We  do  know  that  they  were  an  institution 
formed  in  a  barbarous  age,  and  rude  in  its  nature ;  we  know,  also,  that 


8  OUTLINE     OF     HIS  TORY.  [LEt  T.  1 . 

the  contagious  example  spread  to  every  state,  and  almost  every  city  of 
Greece.  The  effects  of  these  games  on  the  Grecian  morals,  manners, 
and  characters,  are  worthy  of  philosophic  attention.  Intercourse,  emu- 
lation, opportunity  and  success,  were  the  fruits  realized.  Humanity 
laments  the  wild  barbarity  of  some  of  the  exercises,  and  the  ridiculous 
folly  of  others;  but  sense  and  reason  accept  the  final  good,  and  ac- 
quiesce in  the  shame  from  which  no  barbarous  age  was  ever  exempt. 
The  Grecian  games  did  not,  like  Spartan  laws,  entirely  subject  the 
soul  to  the  body,  but  rather  cultivated  the  powers  of  both. 

The  precise  age  of  Homer  and  Hesiod,  is  easily  fixed  by  men  who 
boldly  resolve  to  decide  every  thing.  Homer  lived  after  the  Trojan 
war,  in  2820,  perhaps  three  hundred  years  after,  in  3120.  He  lived 
so  long  before  the  time  of  Herodotus,  that  neither  the  age  in  which  he 
lived,  nor  the  island  or  coast  which  gave  him  birth,  could  then  be  as- 
certained. Here  common  minds  must  rest,  and  be  satisfied.  We  need 
not  try  to  suppress  our  admiring  wonder  at  the  appearance  of  such  a 
man,  in  such  an  age.  Poetic  inspiration  would  naturally  flow  from  the 
ardour,  enterprise,  and  commotion  exhibited  around;  but  the  design  of 
the  poem,  the  perfection  and  purity  of  style,  the  first  ever  produced, 
yet  a  model  for  all  succeeding  ages, — the  early  period,  between  3000 
and  3150, — all  these  considerations  exercise  the  mind  with  prodigious 
astonishment. 

The  successors  of  Solomon  for  this  same  two  hundred  and  'fifty 
years,  with  some  illustrious  exceptions,  exhibited  a  sad  picture  of  de- 
generacy, which  the  fidelity  of  the  sacred  narrative  has  painted  for  our 
admonition  and  instruction.  The  wisdom  of  Solomon  preserved  entire 
the  monarchy  which  the  valour  of  David  had  established.  Rehoboam, 
the  son  of  Solomon,  provoked  a  rebellion  which  rent  his  kingdom. 
After  this  fatal  mischief,  the  line  of  David  was  confined  to  the  south- 
ern of  the  Jewish  tribes;  and  this  limited  kingdom  bore  the  name  of 
Judah,  the  principal  tribe,  from  which  the  royal  line  had  sprung,  and 
the  Messiah  was  to  be  derived.  Israel,  which  v,-as  before  the  name  of 
the  whole  kingdom,  was  from  that  time  appropriated  to  the  northern 
and  eastern  tribes  that  revolted.  The  kings  of  Israel  took  the  lead  in 
wicked  and  idolatrous  practices;  but  Judah  was  not  far  behind  in 
adopting  or  imitating  the  most  absurd  and  abominable  customs  of  their 
idolatrous  neighbours.  To  the  north,  the  kings  of  Syria  recovered 
and  abused  the  independent  power  which  David  and  Solomon  knew 
how  to  curb,  or  crush.  The  nations  conquered  by  David  breathed 
continual  sedition,  and  often  set  the  kings  of  Judah  and  Israel  at  de- 
fiance. Behold  the  elements  of  perpetual  discord,  and  wasting  wars. 
Barbarians  all — fierce,  corrupt,  hostile :  in  nothing  united  but  in  vi- 
cious propensities,  and  lawless  indulgence.  Jezebel,  a  princess  of 
Tyre,  married  Ahab,  one  of  the  kings  of  Israel,  and  inundated  the  land 
with  her  priests  and  gods.  Her  daughter,  Athaliah,  married  Jeho- 
ram,  king  of  Judah,  and  imported  her  mother's  mischiefs  into  that 
kingdom.  It  was  in  vain  that  now  and  then  a  good  king  arose  in 
Judah,  (not  one  in  Israel,)  to  cleanse  the  polluted  altars,  and^purify  the 
defiled  temple.  Headlong  successors  would  urge  on  the  destiny  of  a 
nation,  eagerly  rushing  into  ruin  and  captivity.  The  royal  families  of 
Israel  were  frequently  swept  off  by  a  bold  stroke  of  treason  and  usur- 


LECT.  I.J  OUTLINE     OF     HISTORY.  9 

pation  ;  five  reig-ned  of  one  family  ;  four  of  another;  of  several  dynas- 
ties, only  three ;  and  besides  these,  several  usurpers  were  succeeded 
by  other  usurpers.  It  was  different  in  Judah,  where  the  line  of  David 
continued  unbroken  till  the  destruction  of  the  kingdom. 

Israel  and  Syria  were  finally  desolated  by  the  armies  of  Nineveh, 
and  the  captive  people  distributed  into  the  eastern  cities  in  32fe3.  This 
event  is  called  the  first  captivity.  The  captivity  of  Judah,  or  second 
captivity,  took  place  more  than  a  century  later.  These  events  call  for 
the  consideration  of  the  ancient  kingdoms  of  Nineveh  and  Babylon,  so 
celebrated  in  history,  sacred  and  profane;  so  imperfectly  known  to 
those  who  wait  for  authority  and  evidence ;  so  well  understood  by  all 
who  are  fond  of  the  marvellous.  Sacred  and  profane  history  attest  the 
existence  of  those  ancient  cities.  We  have  direct  authority  for  the  de- 
struction of  Nineveh  by  a  king  of  Babylon,  perhaps  about  the  year 
3379.  We  know  that  Babylon  long  after  existed,  and  gradually  sunk 
into  ruin.  All  the  wonders  that  are  related  of  both,  before  the  year 
3250,  are  the  mere  creatures  of  wonder-searching  brains.  The  Jew- 
ish annals  are  silent  till  3250.  Fiction  is  fluent  1300  years  earlier. 
If  an  immense  monarchy  all  that  time  bordered  on  the  Jewish,  and 
overshadowed  it,  we  derive  not  a  word  of  it  from  the  Jews  themselves. 
Of  the  famed  Semiramis,  before  the  time  of  Abraham,  we  have  already 
spoken.  Sardanapalus  was  1200  later — about  3200.  We  certainly 
could  not  refuse  to  pity  the  cruel  fate  of  that  misguided  monarch;  but 
the  last  catastrophe  is  the  only  point  in  which  his  biographers  can 
agree,  except  that  Nineveh  was  his  capital.  Whether  Babylon,  or 
Media,  or  Persia,  or  Armenia,  belonged  to  his  domains,  is  matter  of 
contradiction  and  doubt,  in  which  every  man  must  form  his  opinion 
without  record  or  evidence  to  guide.  The  twelve  hundred  years  from 
Semiramis  to  Sardanapalus,  is  the  term  and  duration  of  that  prodigy  of 
fiction,  called  the  First,  or  the  Ancient  Assyrian  Empire.  About 
3250,  we  enter  upon  the  period  of  the  Second  Assyrian  Empire,  less 
interesting  than  the  first,  because  more  known  and  more  real ;  yet  here 
again  all  is  doubtful,  except  what  we  gain  from  the  sacred  writers, 
whose  province  only  required  them  to  relate  the  transactions  that 
passed  between  their  own  people  and  the  kings  of  Nineveh  or  Assyria. 
The  two  captivities,  first  of  Israel,  in  2383,  second  of  Judah,  in  3416, 
have  been  already  mentioned.  Tiglath-Pileser,  and  Shalmanazar,  are 
the  names  of'the  two  monarchs  of  Nineveh  or  Assyria,  who  began  and 
completed  the  captivity  of  Syria  and  Israel,  in  3283.  The  treasures  of 
the  holy  temple  were  profanely  lavished  by  wicked  Ahaz,  king  of 
Judah,  to  purchase  the  assistance  of  Tiglath-Pileser  against  the  kings 
of  Israel  and  Syria,  who  had  invaded  Judah  with  immense  armies, 
and  reduced  the  kingdom  to  the  brink  of  destruction.  Ahaz  had  the 
satisfaction  to  see  his  enemies  afflicted  with  greater  calamities  than 
they  had  so  wantonly  brought  upon  him.  The  Syrians,  and  all  the 
tribes  of  Israel,  except  Ephraim  and  Manasseh,  were  carried  to  Nine- 
veh and  other  eastern  cities.  Hezekiah,  son  of  Ahaz,  king  of  Judah, 
did  not  imitate  his  father's  weakness  or  impiety,  in  purchasing  foreign 
assistance;  but  he  saw  the  first  captivity  completed  by  the  ruin  of  Sa- 
maria, and  the  two  remaining  tribes  of  Israel.  This  was  the  age  in 
which  Isaiah  lived  uid  prophesied. 

2 


10  OUT  LINE     OF     HISTORY.  [LECT.  I. 

Before  the  second  captivity,  proud  Nineveh  was  prostrate  in  ruin, 
and  Babylon  had  become  the  seat  of  empire,  as  some  say,  in  3379  :  but 
the  chronology  cannot  be  ascertained  within  many  years  ;  and  the  de- 
tails of  this  "event  can  only  be  furnished  by  fabulists,  whose  liberal 
treasures  are  always  at  our  service.     Were  Media  and  Persia  subject 
to  the  kings  of  Nineveh  ?    Did  they  assist  the  king  or  governor  of  Ba- 
bylon in  the  enterprise  against  Nineveh?  All  is  conjecture;  all  is  con- 
tradiction.    Evidence  merely  warrants  our  saying,  that  kings  reigning 
at  Babylon,  reigned  also  over  the  same  territories  that  were  subject  to 
the  kings  of  Nineveh  at  its  destruction.     Then  commenced  the  Babylo- 
nish, or  Third  Assyrian  Empire.     The  first,  or  most  ancient  Assyrian 
empire,  a  prodigious  fiction,  lasted  twelve  hundred  years,  from  Semi- 
ramis  to  Tiglath-Pileser,  from  2000  to  3250.     The  second  Assyrian 
empire,  indifferently  known,  lasted  little  more  than  a  century  ;  and  the 
Third  Assyrian  Empire  is  the  Babylonish  Empire.    Nabopolasser  was 
the  founder  ;   Nebuchadnezzar  was  his  son,  and  the  author  of  the  second 
captivity.     He  began  to  reign  3400  ;  he  took  Daniel  two  years  before, 
acting  then  as  the  general  of  his  father,  Nabopolasser,  in  the  siege  of 
Jerusalem.     Ezekiel  was  taken  eight  years  later  than  Daniel,  3406 ; 
Jerusalem,  and  the  temple  destroyed,  and  the  people  of  Judah  carried 
captive  3416.     This  completes  the  second  captivity.     Daniel  and  Eze- 
kiel, who  were  carried  to  Babylon,  and  Jeremiah,  who  was  taken  to 
Egypt,  were  the  prophets  of  this  day.     Nebuchadnezzar  also  destroyed 
Tyre,  after  a  siege  of  thirteen  years,  and  then  overran  Egypt.     This 
monarch  is   said  to   have  enlarged  and  embellished   Babylon.     We 
know  nothing  of  him  except  from  Holy  Writ ;  of  his  successors  we 
know  still  less.     They  seem  to  have  been  embroiled  with  the  kings  of 
Media;  but  no  two  historians   can  tell  the  same  story  of  their  wars. 
Cyrus,  the  Persian  arose,  long  before  foretold  by  Isaiah.     His  father 
was  Cambyses;  whether  king  or  governor  of  Persia,  we  know  not. 
His  mother  was  Mandane,  daughter  of  Astyages,  king  of  Media.     Cy- 
axares,  son  and  successor  of  Astyages,  was,  of  course,  the  uncle  of  Cy- 
rus.    These  personages  have  been  made  the  subjects  of  moral  and  pa- 
thetic tales,  by  Herodotus,  Xenophon,  &c.,  but  they  all  contradict  one 
another;    none  had  the  light  of  evidence,  and  we  are  reduced  to  be 
satisfied  with  the  simple  and  certain  truth,  that  Cyrus,  the  Persian, 
conquered  immense  territories,  and  at  last  took  Babylon  by  stratagem, 
and  founded  the  Persian  empire.     Whether  Cyrus  waged  war  against 
the  Assyrian  provinces  in  alliance  with  his  grandfather  and  uncle, 
kings  of  Media,  or  whether  he  first  conquered  them,  and  afterwards 
led  his  forces  against  the  Assyrians,  must  be  decided  by  somebody  who 
has  a  better  opportunity  to  investigate  the  truth  than  Herodotus  and 
Xenophon,  who  give  these  contradictory  stories.     It  is  pretty  certain 
that  Cyrus  conquered  Croesus,  king  of  Lydia,  in  3456,  and  that  he  took 
Babylon  in  3466.     The  kingdom  of  Lydia  then  embraced  nearly  the 
whole  of  Asia  Minor,  and  Croesus,  its  king,  fell  a  sacrifice  to  the  re- 
sentment of  Cyrus,  for  having  entered  into  an  alliance  with  the  king 
of  Babylon.     The  numerous  and  flourishing  Greek  cities  on  the  coast 
of  Asia  Minor,  of  the  ^Eolian,  Ionian,  and  Dorian  names,  had  been 
subjected  to  the  kingdom  of  Lydia,  and  they  now  struggled  in  vain  to 
escape  the  yoke  of  Cyrus.     They  submitted  to  the  Persian  king,  and 


LECT.  I.J  OUTLINE     Of     HISTORY.  11 

will  soon  be  found  acting  a  consp  cuous  part  in  the  grand  transactions 
between  Greece  and  Persia. 

Nineveh  was  the  first  seat  of  eastern  despotism  :  its  destruction  trans- 
ferred the  pre-eminence  to  Baby  on.  Cyrus  reduced  Babylon  to  a  pro- 
vincial and  dependent  city,  and  Susa  becomes  and  remains  for  two  hun- 
dred years  the  capital  of  the  Persian  empire. 

The  captive,  Daniel,  found  favour  with  Cyrus,  who  permitted  the 
Jews  to  return  to  their  own  country,  and  rebuild  Jerusalem  and  the 
temple.  Many  Jews,  particularly  of  the  first  captivity,  chose  to  re- 
main in  the  eastern  cities,  where  they  long  enjoyed  distinguished  privi- 
leges, and  made  a  considerable  proportion  of  eastern  population.  Those 
who  returned  to  Jerusalem  experienced  various  delays  and  difficulties 
in  rebuilding  their  temple  and  walls.  The  Samaritans,  an  inveterate 
race,  who  had  been  transplanted  into  the  tribes  from  the  east,  to  repeo- 
ple  the  country  after  the  first  captivity,  having  embraced  the  Jewish 
religion,  claimed  to  participate  in  the  privileges  of  the  temple,  to  the 
expense  of  which  they  had  to  contribute  by  the  decree  of  Cyrus.  Be- 
ing disdainfully  rejected  by  the  Jews  as  a  spurious  race,  they  carried 
their  clamor  and  opposition  to  a  degree  of  frantic  rage,  which,  for 
twenty  years  baffled  and  retarded  the  labours  of  the  Jews;  and  in  this 
they  were  countenanced  by  the  decrees  of  Cambyses,  son  of  Cyrus,  and 
Smerdis,  the  usurper.  At  length  Darius  Hystaspes,  third  king  of  Per- 
sia, effectually  exerted  his  power  in  behalf  of  the  temple  and  city,  and 
they  arose  with  much  of  their  former  splendour  and  magnificence. 
From  that  time,  they  received  continual  additions  and  improvements, 
till  their  total  destruction  by  Titus,  the  Roman  emperor,  six  hundred 
years  after, — seventy  years  after  the  birth  of  Christ. 

During  the  captivity,  the  common  people  among  the  Jews  lost  their 
own  language,  and  spoke  only  that  of  the  Chaldeans ;  so  that,  from 
their  restoration,  the  Hebrew  was  only  cultivated  and  understood  by 
the  Rabbis.  The  Hebrew  copy  of  the  Bible  was  still  read  in  the  syn- 
agogues, but  an  interpreter  was  always  employed  to  render  every  verse, 
as  soon  as  read  in  Hebrew,  into  Chaldee. 

The  line  of  David  enjoyed  only  titular  honours,  after  the  captivity, 
without  real  power.  A  prince  of  that  line,  with  the  High  Priest,  re- 
turned at  the  head  of  the  Jews  to  Jerusalem ;  but  the  restored  Jews 
were  subject  to  the  Persian  empire;  and  whatever  authority  they  were 
allowed  to  enjoy  was  engrossed  by  priests  and  rabbis ;  the  prince  sunk 
into  obscurity  and  insignificance.  Ezra  and  Neherniah  were  the  con- 
spicuous prophets  of  the  second  temple.  After  them,  prophets  and  sa- 
cred historians  cease  their  functions,  and  about  the  same  time  Hero- 
dotus, the  first  profane  historian,  begins  to  write. 

Cyrus  had  erected  an  immense  monarchy,  extending  from  India  to 
the  Grecian  seas.  His  son  and  successor,  Cambyses,  a  frantic  despot, 
marched  into  Egypt,  conquered  the  whole  country,  and  added  it  to  the 
Persian  empire.  He  sacrificed  immense  armies,  in  trying  to  conquer 
the  burning  deserts  of  Lybia  and  Ethiopia  :  he  threatened  Carthage  ; 
but  while  he  breathed  vengeance  and  fury  equally  against  foreigners 
and  his  own  unhappy  subjects,  a  usurper,  by  the  name  of  Smerdis,  oc- 
cupied his  throne  at  Susa,  under  the  assumed  character  of  his  brother. 
Death  arrested  him  as  he  was  setting  out  to  return  to  his  capital 


12  OUTLINE     OF     HISTORY.  [LECT.  II. 

and  punish  the  usurper.  After  seven  months,  the  imposture  was  de- 
tected, and  Darius  Hystaspes  reigned  the  third  lawful  king  of  Persia, 
in  3483.  Before  3500,  he  conquered  Thrace,  in  Europe;  and  India,  in 
the  East.  His  celebrated  wars  with  Greece,  begin  in  3500  precisely, 
and  that  is  the  point  of  time  at  which  authentic  history  begins. 

The  history  of  Egypt  is  known  from  the  time  it  became  a  part  of  the 
Persian  empire.  Before  that  time,  and  after  Solomon,  we  can  ascertain 
but  little,  except  a  few  expeditions  into  Israel,  and  the  irruption  of  Ne- 
buchadnezzar into  Egypt.  Chronologers  must  fix  the  time  of  Sesos- 
tris  within  five  hundred  years  before  \ve  can  follow  him  all  over  the 
world  with  his  conquering  armies. 

The  affairs  of  Greece  have  been  brought  down  to  3250,  the  era  of 
the  foundation  of  Rome,  and  of  the  second  Assyrian  empire.  From 
3250  to  3500,  colonization  goes  on,  and  the  Grecian  nations  gradually 
assume  a  more  calm  and  settled  condition.  Two  ferocious  wars,  called 
first  and  second  Messenian  wars,  subjected  the  Messenian  state  and 
nation  to  the  Spartans.  The  result  of  these  wars  gave  the  Spartans  a 
complete  ascendency  in  the  Peloponnesus.  The  third  Messenian  Avar 
lies  much  later.  Argos  was  governed  by  an  aristocracy.  Corinth 
changed  from  monarchy  to  aristocracy,  and  from  that  again  to  mo- 
narchy, and  from  that  again  to  aristocracy.  We  have  seen  the  aboli- 
tion of  monarchy  at  Athens,  2930,  succeeded  by  hereditary  archons. 
The  archons  became  decennial,  or  for  ten  years,  about  3250,  and  final- 
ly annual,  about  3320.  The  archon,  Solon,  is  famous  among  the 
ancient  lawgivers.  He  appears  at  Athens,  about  3430,  three  hundred 
years  later  than  Lycurgus,  at  Sparta.  His  laws  were  silly  enough, 
but  they  did  not,  like  those  of  Lycurgus,  prefer  the  body  to  the  soul ; 
they  left  free  scope  to  intellectual  energy.  He  was  one  of  the  seven 
wise  men.  Their  wisdom  and  their  maxims  have  been  the  theme  of 
praise.  Pity  that  it  was  all  folly.  However,  it  answers  for  talk.  In 
the  face  and  eyes  of  Solon,  Pisistratus,  an  artful  demagogue,  usurped 
sovereign  power  at  Athens.  The  history  of  his  sons  connects  with 
important  events,  not  now  to  be  considered.  A  succession  of  elegant 
Greek  poets  flourished  in  this  age;  Pythagoras,  and  others,  called 
philosophers,  appear.  They  had  talents,  but  their  philosophy  was 
such  as  we  should  expect  from  the  age. 


LECTURE    II. 

A  PRECEDING  Lecture  has  hurried  us  over  thirty-five  centuries; 
from  the  creation  to  the  year  of  the  world  3500  ; — a  long  interval,  pre- 
senting always  a  gloomy  stillness,  or  savage  scenes  of  wild  commo- 
tion. Throughout,  the  picture  is  shaded  with  the  darkness  of  primi- 
tive ignorance,  or  faintly  illuminated  by  a  few  rays  of  scattered  light. 
At  the  close  of  this  dreary  lapse,  the  change  to  us  is  instantaneous"  a 
memorable  era  commences ;  we  seem  to  pass  suddenly  from  the  shades 


LECT.  II.]  OUTLINE     OF     HIS  TORY.  13 

of  night  to  meridian  brightness.  The  arms  of  Cyrus  had  consolidated 
the  East  into  one  stupendous  monarchy,  in  3466.  The  frantic  ambition 
of  his  son,  Cambyses;  theignoble,  but  momentary  reign  of  the  usurper, 
Smerdis,  clouded,  for  awhile,  the  eastern  aspect;  but  even  Cambyses 
stretched  the  Persian  sceftr*  over  the  rich  vales  of  the.  Nile,  and  the 
magnificent  cities  of  Egjpt.  Darius  soon  succeeded  ;  Thrace  and 
India  swelled  the  list  of  provinces,  and  poured  their  treasures  into  the. 
palaces  of  Susa.  The  ambition  of  that  monarch  clashed  with  the  liber- 
ties of  Greece.  Victoriots  before,  baffled  now,  his  name  still  gains 
lustre  or  renown  from  the  unfortunate  encounter. 

The  acquisition  of  Thrace  had  destroyed  the  natural  barrier  be- 
tween the  Persian  doma  ns  and  the  Grecian  States,  and  planted  the 
seeds  of  future  discord.  The  memorable  conflict  was  hastened  on  by 
the  sullen  submission,  arc  at  length  the  open  revolt  of  the  Greeks  of 
Asia  Minor,  assisted  by  their  kindred  race  of  Athens.  In  that  city  the 
spirit  of  liberty  had  recent, y  triumphed  over  its  tyrants,  the  sons  of 
Pisistratus.  A  daring  bio  v  .iad  despatched  Hipparchus ;  a  general 
revolt  drove  Hippias,  the  otha-,  into  exile,  to  the  court  of  Darius,  who 
cherished  the  complaints  of  the  banished  monarch,  and  resolved  to 
cloak  his  own  ambition  under  the  specious  pretext  of  espousing  the 
common  cause  of  injured  kings.  The  opposite  passions  of  men  kin- 
dled into  a  flame  that  spread  over  the  face  of  the  earth,  and  dissipated 
the  gloom  of  ages. 

We  have  plunged  Greece  and  Persia  into  a  contest  that  will  long  en- 
dure. The  era  of  its  commencement  is  imposing,  though  less  import- 
ant, immediately,  in  othtr  parts  of  the  world.  The  expulsion  of  the 
kings  of  Rome,  was  alm»st  simultaneous  with  that  of  the  Pisistratidoe 
from  Athens,  about  3500.  The  downfall  of  a  tyrant  is  an  event  always 
viewed  with  interest  by  mankind,  though  commotion,  instead  of  calm, 
generally  succeeds,  and  some  new  adventurer  converts  the  disorder  to 
his  own  aggrandizement,  and  tha  unhappy  people  behold  new  chains 
forged,  new  snares  laid,  perhaps  by  the  very  idols  who  struck  the  first 
blow,  or  led  the  attack  agains:  their  former  tyrants.  In  such  cases,  the 
second  tyrant  is  usually  more  dangerous  than  the  former,  since  the  same 
deceit  and  dissimulation  which  associated  his  name  with  the  cause  of 
freedom,  may  still  be  successfully  practised  to  impose  upon  undiscern- 
ing  minds,  who  continue  to  identify  their  hero  with  the  sacred  cause 
which  he  has  abandoned  and  betrayed.  At  Rome,  the  magistracy 
passed  from  the  king  to  the  patricians,  a  jealous  aristocracy,  who 
dreaded  equally  a  monarch  and  all  plebeian  encroachments.  The  an- 
nual election  of  consuls  flattered  the  expectations  of  every  senator,  and 
during  his  year  the  consul  was  hvested  with  sufficient  power  to  sup- 
press ordinary  tumults  in  the  city,  and  meet  the  common  exigencies  of 
war.  When  unusual  dangers  pressed,  the  temporary  appointment  of 
a  dictator,  with  absolute  power,  served  to  restore  order,  and  insure  the 
public  safety.  The  rights  of  the  people  were  in  some  measure  guard- 
ed by  their  own  annual  magistrates,  called  tribunes  of  the  people,  who 
had  power  to  arrest  any  public  measure,  though  they  could  not  pro- 
pose any  thing.  In  process  of  time,  the  privileges  of  the  people  were 
enlarged  ;  but  at  no  period  was  the  Roman  constitution  well  defined  ; 
the  contradictory  pretensions  of  plebeians  and  patricians,  of  consuls 


14  OUTLINE     OF     HISTORY.  [LECT.  II. 

and  tribunes,  filled  the  city  with  perpe:ual  tumult  and  disorder.  No- 
thing, however,  could  ever  check  the  Roman  ardour  for  war  and  con- 
quest ;  enemies  in  the  forum  were  friends  h  the  field  of  battle ;  the 
majesty  of  Rome  filled  every  mind,  swelled  every  haughty  soul,  and 
warme'd  every  imagination.  In  the  eye  of  a  Roman,  conquest  and  do- 
minion were  the  peculiar  prerogatives  of  kis  sacred  city.  In  all  ages, 
to  resist  Roman  arrogance  was  rash  presunption.  After  the  submis- 
sion of  a  people,  policy  alone  dictated  waetler  the  vanquished  should 
share  the  full  privileges  of  citizens,  or  submtto  cruel  slavery.  If  this 
policy  was  often  disguised  under  the  specie  is  names  of  generosity  or 
justice,  a  fair  scrutiny  will  reject  the  excuse  or  pretence.  The  Roman 
treasury  was  not  drained  in  early  ages  to  reward  the  soldiers;  but  the 
license  of  plunder  was  unbounded  ;  exemptiors  and  privileges  increas- 
ed in  proportion  as  the  contributions  were  multiplied  from  vanquished 
territories.  Successful  valour  seized  its  own  reward,  and  the  pride  of 
conquest  soothed  and  flattered  every  cit.ze.i,  from  the  highest  to  the 
lowest  degree. 

For  the  two  hundred  and  fifty  years  now  lefore  us,  while  we  see 
Greece  in  its  meridian  splendour,  Rome  is  still  confined  to  the  wars 
and  conquests  of  Italy.  For  the  next  succeeding  two  hundred  and  fifty 
years,  from  3750  to  4000,  we  shall  see  Rome  striding  over  every  sea, 
and  embracing  Greece,  Asia,  Egypt,  and  Africi,  in  its  dominions.  We 
now  take  our  leave  of  Rome  for  two  huncred  tnd  fifty  years. 

We  left  Greece  and  Persia  in  the  commencement  of  their  celebrated 
struggle,  3500.  The  nature  of  the  war  laid  the  first  scene  in  Asia 
Minor,  where  the  Ionian  Greeks,  inadequate!/  assisted  by  the  distant 
Athenians,  after  a  brave  resistance  of  six  years,  were  compelled  to  sub- 
mit again  to  their  haughty  and  indignant  masters.  Darius  Hystaspes, 
elated  with  former  success,  now  resolved  to  carry  his  victorious  arms 
over  the  ^Egean  sea,  and  subject  all  Greece  to  his  imperial  sway.  The 
Athenians  had  given  him  cause  of  complaint,  by  assisting  their  revolt- 
ing brethren.  Hippias,  the  exiled  son  of  Pisistratus,  urged  every  to- 
pic ;  and  lust  of  dominion  closed  the  monarch's  eyes  to  all  considera- 
tions of  justice  or  prudence.  One  blew  from  a  mighty  realm  seemed 
enough  to  crush  a  little  state;  but  a  fleet  and  army  perished  in  Thrace, 
and  on  its  coast,  the  one  a  victim  to  the  tempests,  and  the  other  to  sud- 
den surprise  from  a  barbarian  host.  New  preparations  arrayed  a  for- 
midable host  for  a  new  invasion.  Avoiding  the  stormy  coasts,  and 
fierce  barbarians  of  Thrace,  his  fleet  ana  transports  deliberately  tra- 
versed the  ^Egean  sea,  and  after  subduing  the  islands  that  lay  in  the 
way,  reached  the  coast  of  Attica.  110,000  Persians,  poured  forth  into 
the  plains  of  Marathon, — a  name  often  pronounced  with  swelling 
pomposity  by  boys,  pedants  and  politicians,  — 10,000  Athenians, 
advantageously  posted,  and  skilfully  commanded,  bravely  withstood 
the  Persian  onset,  broke  the  ranks,  turned  the  wings,  routed,  pursued, 
and  slaughtered.  Flight  favoured  a  few,  who,  in  wild  panic,  began  in 
better  season,  to  seek  the  fleet ;  but  that  refuge  was  soon  cut  off;  the 
license  of  victory  gave  free  career  to  the  havoc  of  avenging  slaughter, 
and  the  sounding  name  of  Marathon,  long  served  to  rouse,  rally,  and 
urge  on  the  Greeks  to  certain  victory. 

The  glorious  battle  of  Marathon  took  place  in  3515,  ten  years  after 


LECT.  II.]  oUTLINjE     OF     HISTORY.  15 

the  suppression  of  the  Ionian  revolt  by  Darius:  ten  years  before  the 
entrance  of  Xerxes  into  Greece.  Darius  died,  and  Herodotus  was 
born  in  the  year  3520.  This  Darius  was  the  third  lawful  king  of  Per- 
sia— Cyrus,  Cambyses,  Darius.  From  his  death,  in  3520,  eighty 
years  more  were  occupied  by  the  successive  reigns  of  Xerxes,  Arta- 
xerxes,  Darius  Second,  or  5jothus — 20,  40,  20.  Before  his  death, 
Darius  Hystaspes  had  strained  the  nerves  and  sinews  of  his  royal  and 
imperial  might  to  collect  a  force,  ard  aim  a  blow  that  would  mock  the 
hope  of  resistance,  and  efface  the  stigrna  of  his  former  defeat. 

The  revolt  of  Egypt,  just  before  his  death,  delayed  and  divided  his 
noisy  expedition.  He  left  his  son  Xerxes  to  inherit  his  preparations, 
his  embarrassments,  and  his  resen:ments.  The  prudence  of  the  son 
declined  the  contest  with  Greece,  till  his  undivided  strength  had 
crushed  the  revolt  in  Egypt.  Nev  preparations  postponed  the  doubt- 
ful trial,  till  the  fifth  year  of  his  r^ign,  3525.  The  idea  of  trampling 
a  little  community  of  freemen  :o  death,  instead  of  facing  them,  man- 
fully, in  equal  combat,  was  natura.  to  the  proud  lord  of  Persia,  stung 
with  the  fresh  recollections  of  the  field  of  Marathon.  The  numerical 
exaggerations  of  Greek  historians  have  feasted  the  lovers  of  the  mar- 
vellous in  all  succeeding  ages.  An  immense,  but  indefinite  multitude, 
was  very  conveniently  expressed  ty  round  millions,  when  muster  rolls 
were  wanting,  and  all  descriptive  l,erms  considered  inadequate.  The 
universal  expressions  of  wonder,  satisfactorily  attest  the  prodigious 
numbers  of  men  and  ships  that  composed  the  expedition.  Seven  days 
and  nights  would  pour  a  countless  host  into  Europe  over  a  spacious 
bridge  of  boats  constructed  across  the  Hellespont ;  and  twelve  hundred 
vessels,  besides  transports,  would  require  and  contain  a  multitude.  A 
train  of  women,  slaves,  cooks,  comedians,  courtezans,  served  to  swell 
and  encumber  the  ranks.  The  whole,  perhaps,  provokes  a  strain  of 
ridicule  which  has  not  been  spared  by  adequate  pens;  but  it  seems  ra- 
tional to  measure  the  follies  of  Xerxes,  as  well  as  of  other  men,  by  the 
standard  of  truth  and  probability.  We  may  even  lash  his  real  follies 
without  descending  to  represent  the  enraged  monarch  in  the  idle  atti- 
tude of  lashing  the  waves  of  the  Hellespont  for  dashing  to  pieces  his 
bridge  of  boats. 

A  minute  historian  would  follow  the  fleet  and  army  as  they  slowly 
moved  along  the  coast  ready  to  co-operate  in  case  of  attack.  The  bat- 
tle of  Thermopylae,  and  simultaneous  encounter  of  the  Greek  and  Per- 
sian fleet — the  rage  and  purple  glory  of  three  successive  days,  open  a 
noble  field  for  the  inspiration  of  the  muse,  and  the  expansive  declama- 
tion of  history.  But  speed  is  our  province  ;  a  month  for  Xerxes  is  not 
a  minute  for  us.  If  this  haste  would  allow  us  to  feed  our  amazement, 
and  gaze  at  the  deliberate  victims  of  heroic  ardour,  we  might,  perhaps, 
catch  some  faint  impression  of  the  all-inspiring,  all-appalling  scene  ex- 
hibited by  the  Spartan  Leonidas,  and  his  three  hundred  brave  compa- 
nions. Ten  thousand  men  had  been  conducted  by  the  Spartan  king 
to  defend  the  pass.  For  three  days,  Xerxes  witnessed  with  terror  and 
dismay  the  fruitless  slaughter  of  his  men ;  at  last  treason  betrayed  to  a 
detachment  of  his  army  a  secret  pass,  which  led  them  into  the  rear  of 
the  Greeks.  Any  longer  defence  was  hopeless  ;  but  despair  produced 
a  voluntary  and  animating  example  :  Leonidas,  after  dismissing  all  his 


16  OUTLINE     OF     HISTORY.  [LECT.  II. 

troops  but  three  hundred  chosen  and  villing  victims,  sold  his  life  to 
encourage  and  save  Greece. 

From  the  Hellespont  to  Thermopylae,  Thrace,  Macedonia,  and 
Thessaly,  submitted,  to  increase  the  enenv's  ranks.  After  the  passage 
of  Thermopylae,  the  exulting-  victor  paraded  through  Phocis  and  Bceo- 
tia  into  Attica,  the  grave  of  his  tovrering-  hopes,  the  scene  of  his  deep- 
est humiliation.  The  vine  and  the  vegetable  withered  under  the  tramp 
of  brutal  men;  temples  and  sacred  places  yielded  their  treasures  to 
impious  and  rapacious  hands. 

Torches  and  firebrands  kindled  a  devouring  element,  and  consumed 
every  citv,  tower,  or  dwelling.  Xerxes  calmly  surveyed  the  scene  of 
submission  and  desertion,  regarding  the  contest  as  already  finished. 
His  fleet  had  pursued  that  of  Greece  into  the  Saronic  Gulf,  and  finally 
into  the  narrow  strait  of  Salamis,  a  josition  which  the  Spartans  wished 
to  avoid,  but  which  the  sagacity  of  Themistocles  sought  with  artful 
care.  From  an  eminence,  the  kinj  was  witness  of  a  scene  that  baf- 
fled all  his  fond  expectations,  and  chased  him  trembling  out  of  Greece. 
Grecian  skill  and  valour  prevailed  «ver  superior  numbers,  and  a  mere 
remnant  of  the  Persian  fleet  prolonged  by  flight  the  day  of  their  cer- 
tain destruction.  After  the  glorious  battle  of  Salamis,  the  decision  by 
land  was  delayed  about  three  months ;  the  battle  of  Platea  crowned  the 
triumphs  of  Greece;  very  few  Persians  escaped.  On  the  same  day, 
the  remnant  of  the  fleet  that  escaped  from  Salamis,  was  suddenly  at- 
tacked by  the  Athenian  Xantippus,  and  utterly  ruined. 

Thus,  in  the  compass  of  less  than  four  months,  the  millions  that  fol- 
lowed Xerxes  into  Europe,  perished  ignobly  in  the  battles  of  Thermo- 
pylae, Artimisium,  Salamis,  Platea,  and  Mycale  ;  and  with  them  ex- 
pired every  future  hope,  or  even  thought,  of  conquering  Greece.  An 
edifying  lesson  to  grasping  and  rapacious  monarchs,  if  monarchs  were 
composed  of  materials  upon  which  the  lessons  of  experience  could  pro- 
duce any  impression.  From  Xerxes  to  Buonaparte,  the  lust  of  power 
that  has  sought  to  domineer  over  all  mankind,  has  experienced  almost 
one  uniform  result  of  disappointment  and  disgrace.  But  that  is 
preaching. 

The  island  of  Sicily  had  been  colonized  from  Greece ;  and  Syracuse, 
its  capital,  was  a  Corinthian  colony.  Xerxes,  knowing  that  the  Greeks 
of  Sicily  would  be  inclined  to  send  aid  to  their  brethren  in  Greece,  en- 
tered into  an  alliance  with  the  Carthaginians,  by  which  they  engaged 
to  pass  over  into  Sicily  with  three  hundred  thousand,  while  he  invaded 
Greece  with  his  millions.  The  Carthaginians  had  long  kept  a  wish- 
ful eye  turned  on  that  fertile  and  important  island,  but  they  fared  no 
better  than  Xerxes.  In  one  moment  of  surprise  they  were  all  cut  off 
by  an  artful  stratagem  of  Gelon,  the  first  tyrant,  or  king  of  Syracuse. 

The  principal  actors  in  the  battle  of  Marathon,  3515,  were  Miltia- 
des,  Aristides,  and  Themistocles.  Miltiades  died  in  prison  the  next 
year,  leaving  a  son,  the  illustrious  Cimon,  to  perpetuate  the  honours  of 
his  family.  Aristides  and  Themistocles  were  the  chief  fountains  of 
wisdom  and  counsel,  and  the  souls  of  action  during  the  invasion  of 
Xerxes.  Aristides  returned  from  banishment  to  participate  in  the 
glory  and  danger  of  his  rival.  Themistocles  experienced  the  caprice 
and  ingratitude  of  his  countrymen  ten  years  after,  and  took  refuge  with 


LECT.    II.]  OUTLINE     OF     HISTORY.  17 

the  king  of  Persia.  Fickleness  and  ingratitude  formed  a  striking  trait 
in  the  licentious  democracy  of  Athens.  Brilliant  talents  and  patriotic 
services  invariably  exposed  eminent  Athenians  to  odium,  banishment, 
or  death. 

Mutual  jealousy  rankled  in  the  breasts  of  the  Spartans  and  Athe- 
nians. The  absence  of  the  Spartans  from  the  field  of  Marathon,  was 
excused  by  a  religious  scruple,  that  delayed  the  march  of  their  army 
till  the  horn  of  the  moon  was  filled  to  a  requisite  measnre.  Valour 
and  fortune  saved  the  state,  and  the  Athenians  engrossed  the  honour. 
The  Spartans  were  promptly  in  the  field  in  opposition  to  Xerxes.  At 
Thermopylae  the  glory  was  theirs;  and  in  every  trying  scene  of  the 
war,  their  valiant  co-operation  was  essential  and  adequate.  But  they 
uniformly  persisted  in  arrogating  the  chief  command  by  land  and  sea, 
when  it  was  evident  to  all  mankind  that  the  salvation  of  the  state  de- 
pended on  the  superior  abilities  of  the  Athenian  commanders;  and 
they  even  seemed  resolved  to  abandon  a  cause  which  involved  their 
own  political  existence,  sooner  than  relinquish  a  vain  point  of  honour. 
The  Athenian  generals  yielded  to  the  vain  punctilio,  and  yet  posterity 
has  awarded  to  Themistocles  and  Aristides  the  honours  due  to  the  con- 
summate art  and  skill  which  they  displayed.  We  shall  see  this  spirit 
of  jealousy  rise  into  a  flame  that  will  consume  the  liberties  of  Greece. 

After  the  defeat  of  the  Persians,  a  misunderstanding  arose,  very  lit- 
tle to  the  honour  of  Sparta.  That  haughty  people  interposed  to  pre- 
vent the  Athenians  from  rebuilding  their  citadel  and  walls,  recently  de- 
molished by  the  Persians,  alleging  that  it  was  dangerous  for  such 
works  to  fall  into  the  enemy's  hands,  in  case  of  a  more  successful  inva- 
sion. Protected  themselves  from  foreign  invasion,  by  their  peninsular 
situation,  they  showed  a  jealous  and  ungenerous  indifference  to  the 
safety  of  their  most  exposed  neighbours.  By  artful  delays,  and  pro- 
tracted embassies,  Themistocles  caused  the  walls  and  citadel  to  rise,  be- 
fore the  Spartans  could  effectually  oppose  the  progress  of  the  work. 
Notwithstanding  this  early  and  continued  jealousy,  a  variety  of  cir- 
cumstances will  delay  the  fatal  conflict  about  fifty  years;  a  period 
which  we  now  proceed  to  review  in  a  brief  outline.  • 

The  facts  to  be  related,  develop  the  causes  which  raised  Athens  to 
a  decided  and  dangerous  ascendency  in  Greece,  and  provoked  that  de- 
solating war  which  proved  so  fatal  to  all  the  states,  and  more  imme- 
diately disastrous  to  Athens  herself.  The  victory  of  Marathon,  and 
the  conspicuous  services  of  Aristides  and  Themistocles  in  the  late  bat- 
tles, imparted  to  Athens  a  new  lustre,  and  gave  her  a  more  imposing 
attitude  among  the  states  of  Greece  than  she  ever  assumed  before.  The 
character  of  Cimon,  and  his  conduct  at  the  head  of  the  fleet,  gained  for 
his  country  the  homage  or  alliance  of  all  the  coasts  and  islands  of  the 
^Egean  sea. 

No  sooner  were  the  Persian  armies  chased  out  of  Greece,  and  de- 
stroyed, than  the  Athenians  resumed  their  original  intention  of  setting 
at  liberty  the  Greek  colonies  of  Thrace  and  Asia  Minor,  who  detested 
the  Persian  yoke,  and  implored  the  aid  of  their  victorious  brethren. 
The  Spartan  fleet  united  with  that  of  Athens,  and  the  Spartan  Pausa- 
nias,  still  arrogated  to  himself  the  chief  command,  notwithstanding  the 

3 


18  OUTLINE     OF     HISTORY.  [LECT.  II. 

superiority  of  the  Athenians.  His  haughty  and  disdainful  deportment, 
and  at  length  his  treasonable  correspondence  with  the  king  of  Persia, 
to  whom  he  was  pledged  to  betray  that  freedom  for  which  he  had  late- 
ly fought,  alienated  the  minds  of  all  the  allies,  and  actually  transferred 
the  command  of  the  fleet  to  Aristides  and  Cimon,  the  Athenian  gene- 
rals. From  that  time,  the  great  Cimon  prosecuted  the  patriotic  work 
of  deliverance,  and  enjoyed  an  almost  uninterrupted  career  of  glory  for 
thirty  years, — from  about  3535  to  3555.  He  flew  from  one  scene  of 
victory  to  another ;  delivered  the  cities  of  Thrace,  of  the  Hellespont, 
and  of  Asia  Minor,  from  the  despotism  of  the  great  king,  and  brought 
them  all  into  a  close  and  honourable  alliance  with  Athens.  On  two 
occasions,  first  in  3535,  again  in  3555,  the  year  of  his  death,  he  defeat- 
ed a  Persian  fleet  of  superior  numbers,  and  instantly  rushed  upon  the 
land,  and  attacked  and  routed  a  superior  army  the  same  day.  Ci- 
mon did  not  derive  the  lustre  of  his  name  solely  from  his  warlike 
achievements.  His  popular  manners,  and  the  generous  use  he  made 
of  the  riches  acquired  by  the  plunder  of  the  enemy,  endeared  him  to 
all  his  fellow-citizens,  who  saw  with  gratitude  and  delight  his  private 
walks  and  splendid  gardens  thrown  open  for  public  amusement,  and 
his  plentiful  table  spread  for  the  use  of  the  indigent.  He  was  once 
banished  for  a  short  time,  by  the  powerful  influence  of  his  rival  Peri- 
cles ;  but  Pericles  himself  was  the  first  to  propose  his  recall ;  and  this 
great  and  noble  character  died  in  a  blaze  of  glory,  adorned  with  recent 
laurels,  after  having,  by  a  long  career  of  unexampled  success,  extended 
the  influence  and  alliance  of  Athens  over  an  immense  extent  of  sea- 
coast,  that  before  groaned  under  a  distant  despot. 

Pericles  was  the  son  of  Xantippus,  who  achieved  the  victory  of  Myc- 
ale,  3525.  The  mother  of  Pericles  was  also  of  the  most  illustrious 
lineage,  and  his  early  education  and  promise  were  equal  to  his  other 
pretensions.  He  first  began  to  figure  at  Athens  about  3535,  when 
both  Aristides  and  Themistocles  had  disappeared  from  the  stage  of 
action.  He  was  the  rival  of  Cimon  in  fame  and  in  power ;  but  he 
survived  his  rival  twenty  years,  and  enjoyed  unbounded  sway  at 
Athens,  in  spite  of  Thucydides,  who  took  the  place  of  Cimon.  If 
there  was  no  particular  department  of  public  or  private  life  in  which 
Pericles  excelled  all  other  men,  so  there  have  been  few  men  supe- 
rior to  him  in  any  respect  whatever.  A  consummate  statesman,  a 
tnundering  orator,  a  persuasive  and  eloquent  advocate,  a  citizen  of  the 
most  obliging  condescension  and  address;  as  a  commander,  deliberate 
in  council,  prompt  and  successful  in  execution;  a  man  of  exquisite 
taste,  devotedly  fond  of  the  elegant  arts,  which  flourished  in  his  age 
more  than  in  any  other  period  of  Grecian  history.  Statues,  edifices, 
and  pictures  were  multiplied  and  employed  to  adorn  every  part  of 
the  noble  city. 

The  popular  affability  and  address  of  Pericles,  his  eloquence,  taste,  li- 
berality, and  profound  sagacity,  would  now  command  our  unmingled  ad- 
miration, had  they  not  then  been  too  much  employed  as  the  engines  of 
an  inordinate  ambition.  Almost  without  regular  appointment,  Peri- 
cles engrossed  for  himself  the  government  of  Athens,  and  gained  for 
Athens  the  government  of  all  Greece.  His  wonderful  talents  com- 


LECT.    II.]  OUTLINE     OF     HISTORY.  19 

manded  deference  ;  his  compliance,  caresses  ;  and  general  indulgence 
to  the  people,  soothed  their  minds,  and  secured  their  suffrages.  This 
eminent  statesman  has  been  severely  censured,  for  fanning  the  flame  of 
discord  between  Athens  and  Sparta,  and  precipitating  them  into  a  fatal 
war,  at  a  time  when  his  influence  was  capable  of  moderating  and  com- 
posing the  jealous  irritation  of  the  parties. 

The  remote  and  immediate  causes  of  the  famous  Peloponnesian 
war  have  been  accurately  traced,  and  stated  by  the  historians  of  that 
age.  The  character  and  institutions  of  the  Spartans  seemed  to  insure 
their  superiority  over  the  other  states  of  the  Peloponnesus ;  and  the 
jealous  hatred  of  those  states  was  the  natural  consequence  of  their  forced 
submission.  The  Athenians  extended  their  milder  influence  over  the 
coasts  and  islands  of  the  ^Egean,  by  the  generous  enterprise  of  Cimon, 
and  the  profound  policy  of  Pericles.  This  refined  system  was  less  of- 
fensive than  the  morose  despotism  of  Sparta;  and  yet  the  Athenian  al- 
lies could  not  fail  to  discover  that  the  arts  of  Pericles  would  ultimately 
leave  them  no  more  than  the  shadow  of  freedom.  The  intrigues  of 
each  party  carefully  infused  the  venom  of  jealousy  into  the  suspicious 
minds  of  the  allies  and  subjects  of  the  other;  and  the  symptoms  of  fu- 
ture war  were  manifested  or  suppressed  during  fifty  years,  as  the  caprice 
of  men,  and  the  accidental  tide  of  fortune  occasionally  prompted.  The 
pacific  offices  of  Cimon,  several  times  suspended  or  healed  an  open 
rupture.  The  contrary  bias  of  Pericles  opposed  the  pacific  policy ; 
and  as  the  evil  passions  of  men  are  more  easily  aroused  than  appeased, 
Pericles  oftener  prevailed  than  Cimon,  who  made  his  appeal  to  the 
calm  sense  and  reason  of  his  countrymen.  On  one  occasion,  Cimon 
was  banished  for  having  persuaded  the  Athenians  to  send  him  at  the 
head  of  some  forces,  whose  assistance  had  been  implored  by  the  Spar- 
tans, assailed  by  their  slaves  amidst  the  ruins  of  an  earthquake,  which, 
convulsed  their  city,  and  precipitated  the  impending  rocks  of  Taygeta 
into  its  streets.  The  minds  of  men  were  soured  by  real  or  supposed 
provocations ;  the  busy  embassies  that  professed  to  negotiate  peace, 
only  entangled  the  parties  in  new  difficulties  :  indeed,  all  foresaw  the 
certainty  of  a  struggle;  and  years  of  seeming  negotiation,  were  actual 
delays  for  preparation,  for  gaining  allies  by  intrigue,  and  for  setting  a 
keen  edge  to  resentment.  For  thirty  years  after  the  expedition  of 
Xerxes,  Cimon  was  gaining  new  allies  for  Athens,  by  delivering  new 
islands  and  new  cities  from  the  Persian  yoke.  In  3555,  the  last  vic- 
tory of  Cimon  compelled  Artaxerxes  to  submit  to  the  terms  dictated  by 
the  Grecians ;  and  a  peace  was  concluded.  If  the  policy  of  Pericles 
could  have  brought  Athens  and  Sparta  to  an  immediate  trial  of  strength, 
the  gratitude  of  the  Athenian  allies  for  recent  deliverance,  would  have 
insured  their  ardour  and  fidelity  in  the  struggle.  But  the  experience 
of  twenty  years  had  developed  the  ambitious  views  of  their  protectors, 
and  disclosed  their  own  subservient  condition :  fidelity  faltered, 
jealousy  was  awakened,  and  resentment  kindled.  The  states  conti- 
guous to  Sparta,  and  most  exposed  to  its  odious  encroachments,  espous- 
ed the  cause  of  Athens ;  and  those  bordering  on  Attica  joined  Sparta 
for  similar  reasons.  The  inferior  states,  which  had  no  hopes  of  domi- 
nion, would  have  been  satisfied  with  independence.  Athens  and  Sparta 
could  brook  no  independence  but  their  own,  and  both  lusted  for  domi- 


20  OUTLINE     OF     HISTORY.  [LECT.  II. 

nion.  The  result  of  their  silly  contest  will  display  the  madness  of 
such  ambition  ;  but  a  similar  result  in  every  instance,  from  that  time 
to  this,  has  not  yet  convinced  or  instructed  minds  that  court  misery 
under  the  guise  of  glory  and  ambition.  It  is  the  same  stupid  delusion 
which  be-addles  the  brains  of  murderers,  robbers,  thieves,  perjurers,  and 
traitors,  and  abandons  them  to  the  fatal  conviction  that  they  are  exempt 
from  the  exposure,  infamy,  condemnation,  remorse,  and  horror,  that 
have  inevitably  overtaken  all  others  involved  in  similar  guilt.  It  is 
the  same  pitiful  delusion  that  makes  men  strive  and  strut  out  of  the 
sphere  for  which  they  were  designed  ;  waste  their  substance,  and 
plunge  into  debt  to  be  respectable,  and  court  the  company  of  those  who 
despise  them.  The  folly  is  the  same  in  all ;  it  is  the  iblly  of  expecting 
the  irreversible  decrees  of  heaven  to  be  reversed  in  our  behalf  alone. 

Ten  years  after  the  peace  with  Persia,  a  war  broke  out  between  Co- 
rinth, and  Corcyra,  her  colony.     The  interval  had  been  devoted  to 
secret  intrigue  and  preparation;  the  war  unveiled  at  once  all  the  bit- 
ter passions  that  policy  or  dissemblance  had  concealed.     The  Corcy- 
reans  appealed  to  the  Athenians  for  aid;  and  all  the  interest  and  elo- 
quence of  Pericles  were  exerted  to  procure  a  decree  favourable  to  their 
application.     The  deputies  from  Corinth  and  Sparta  opposed  the  inter- 
ference of  Athens,  but  the  voice  of  Pericles  prevailed,  and  aid  was  sent 
to  Corcyra.     A  series  of  strange  vicissitudes  attended  the  operations  of 
this  war.     Two  factions  of  Corcyra  alternately  prevailing,  butchered 
and  destroyed  each  other  with  every  circumstance  of  atrocious  perfidy 
and  savage  cruelty.     The  Spartans  were  not  indifferent  spectators  of 
events  that  might  result  in  bringing  the  Ionian  islands  into  a  close  al- 
liance with  Athens,  whose  power  and  ambition  already  threatened  the 
liberties  of  Greece.     Embassy  after  embassy  only  served  to  disclose  the 
jealousy  of  the  parties,  and  sharpen  their  resentment.     The  pride  of 
Athens  was  as  pernicious  as  the  ferocity  of  Sparta.     Gratuitous  pro- 
vocations were  added  to  wanton  mischief,  and  a  convulsive  struggle 
was  hurried  on  by  the  perverseness  of  individuals,  abetted  by  the  licen- 
tious humours  of  a  turbulent  democracy.     The  keen  eye  of  a  discern- 
ing statesman  might,  perhaps,  have  discovered  the  seeds  of  inevitable 
war,  and  the  present  advantages,  which  delay  might  jeorpardize.    The 
ambition  of  Pericles  has  been  arraigned;  but  his  motives  are  inscruta- 
ble to  us  at  this  time.     Perhaps  he  calmly  and  honestly  surveyed  the 
restless  allies  of  his  country,  equally  ready  to  revolt,  or  engage  in  any 
expedition  that  was  set  on  foot.     At  any  rate,  while  he  lived,  he  stood 
erect  in  war,  and  magnanimous  in  counsel,  stemming  the  tempest  when 
he  could  no  longer  direct  it.     The  rage  of  plague  and  pestilence  was 
not  obvious  to  human  foresight,  nor  one  of  the  chances  which  a  states- 
man of  Greece  was  bound  to  estimate.   From  Egypt,  through  Asia,  the 
fatal  infection  made  its  circuit  to  Athens  and  Attica.     The  Spartans 
had  invaded  and  laid  waste;  and  the  Athenian  navy  recalled  them  to 
the  defence  of  their  own  coasts  and  seaports :  but  the  arm  of  valour 
could  not  resist  this  new  enemy ;  it  withered  and  perished.     Medical 
skill  was  equally  unavailing.     Instant  distraction  and  despair  seized 
the  victim,  and  torment  finished  the  patient  before  the  physician  arriv- 
ed.    Pericles,  with  horror,  saw  his  children  seized  and  hurried  into 
the  common  grave.    His  public  and  private  griefs  could  not  unman  his 


LE€T.  II.]  OUTLINE     OF     HISTORY.  21 

great  soul ;  but  disease  and  death  preyed  upon  his  mortal  powers,  and 
he  sunk  down  in  the  midst  of  his  country's  affliction.  This  melan- 
choly tragedy  closes  the  second  year  of  the  war. 

Wha*.  a  crowd  of  reflections  attend  us  in  pursuing  the  sad  narrative 
through  the  vicissitudes  of  twenty-seven  years,  to  the  close  of  the  grand 
drama.  Lately,  Greece  united  defied  and  humbled  the  giant  of  east- 
ern despotism.  The  sons  of  freedom  stood  amazed  at  their  own  achieve- 
ments; their  adventurous  spirits  sought  distant  scenes  of  danger  and 
glory.  Assailed  on  his  own  coasts,  menaced  or  surprised  every  mo- 
ment at  some  new  point  of  attack,  the  Persian  trembled  on  his  remote 
throne  of  Susa,  and  sought  peace  by  humble  submission.  The  first  calm 
of  peace  displays  the  genius  of  man,  devoted  to  every  elegant  art.  The 
mind  tries  to  dwell  on  the  pleasing  picture ;  but  impending  clouds  ob-" 
scure  the  view,  and  exhibit  the  elements  of  future  tempests  and  final 
ruin.  Greece  was  fatally  impelled  to  its  own  destruction. 

The  Peloponnesian  war  commenced  3573,  two  years  before  the 
death  of  Pericles.  For  six  successive  campaigns,  the  Spartans  uni< 
formly  invaded  Attica,  laying  waste  the  country,  insulting  the  capital, 
seeking  the  combat.  Unequal  to  their  enemies  in  the  field,  the  Athe- 
nians sallied  out  with  their  superior  fleet,  and  sailing  round  the  Pelo- 
ponnesus, spread  terror  and  desolation  on  the  whole  coast.  Even  dur- 
ing the  plague  at  Athens,  the  Spartans  did  not  insult  the  miseries  of 
their  antagonists  with  impunity.  Mutual  waste  and  distress  was  the 
only  result  of  these  six  campaigns.  From  that  time,  the  scene  of  the 
war  was  shifted  to  different  parts  of  Greece.  A  little  island  on  the 
west  of  the  Peloponnesus  became  the  theatre  of  a  most  obstinate  and 
bloody  conflict,  which,  after  many  turns  of  fortune,  terminated  in  favour 
of  the  Athenians,  and  reduced  the  Spartans  to  sue  for  peace.  Elated 
with  this  success,  the  Athenians  declined  all  reasonable  terms;  the 
negotiation  ended,  and  the  seat  of  war  was  removed  to  Thrace,  where 
the  Athenians  possessed  a  number  of  large  and  flourishing  cities.  Bras- 
idas,  the  brave  Spartan,  gained  a  decisive  victory  over  the  boastful 
Cleon ;  both  fell  in  the  action,  and  this  event  was  improved  by  the 
friends  of  peace  to  hush  up  the  war.  A  peace  for  fifty  years  was  soon 
concluded,  called  the  peace  of  Nicias,  on  account  of  the  decided  inter- 
est and  influence  of  Nicias,  the  Athenian,  in  the  adjustment.  The 
peace  of  Nicias  took  place  in  the  tenth  year  of  the  war,  3583.  By  this 
treaty,  the  fury  of  the  war  was  suspended  about  six  years ;  but  the 
animosity  of  the  parties  never  subsided  in  the  least :  infractions  of  the 
treaty  were  mutually  alleged,  and  vehemently  urged  ;  partial  hostili- 
ties were  carried  on  by  the  minor  parties,  and  so  little  did  the  times 
wear  the  aspect  of  peace,  that  the  doubtful  respite  is  actually  reckoned 
as  a  part  of  the  famous  twenty-seven  years ;  beginning  2573,  and  end- 
ing 3600.  The  headstrong  passions  of  the  famous  Alcibiades,  are 
justly  accused  of  replunging  the  states  into  the  horrors  of  active  war, 
3589,  six  years  after  the  peace  of  Nicias.  This  extraordinary  young 
man  was  a  spoiled  child ;  he  was  the  idol  of  the  mob,  and  eclipsed 
every  rival  in  every  debauch ;  and  being  cast  in  beauty's  perfect  mould, 
he  was  every  thing  that  the  most  languishing  damsel  of  modern  times 
could  wish  to  see  depicted  in  a  romance.  We  can  wish  a  licentious 
rabble  no  greater  punishment,  than  to  be  the  sport  of  such  a  leader. 


22  OUTLINE     OP     HISTORY.  [LECT.  II. 

Even  if  we  excuse  his  youthful  sallies,  the  pupil  of  Socrates  can  find  no 
honest  apologist  for  the  debasing  follies  and  corrupt  practices  of  riper 
years.  Commotion  was  the  only  element  in  which  such  a  man  could 
live ;  and  he  saw  with  painful  anxiety  the  misunderstanding  of  Greece 
about  to  be  reconciled  by  a  new  treaty  of  peace.  The  Spartan  ambas- 
sadors arrived  at  Athens  with  full  powers  to  grant  advantageous  terms. 
With  profound  dissimulation,  Alcibiades,  assuming  the  language  of 
impartial  frankness,  advised  them  not  to  increase  the  arrogance  of  the 
Athenians  by  declaring  their  full  powers.  Easy  dupes  to  this  base 
artifice,  the  ambassadors  witnessed  with  shame  and  confusion,  the  in- 
dignation of  the  Athenian  assembly,  inflamed  by  Alcibiades  himself, 
who  exclaimed  with  vehemence  against  the  Spartan  state,  and  urged 
an  immediate  declaration  of  war.  Unable  to  expose  the  perfidy  of  Al- 
cibiades, without  disclosing  their  own  credulity,  the  ambassadors  with- 
drew in  silence,  to  render  an  account  of  their  fruitless  mission  at  Spar- 
ta. Still,  the  cause  of  peace  found  so  many  able  advocates,  that  no  se- 
rious war  would  have  ensued,  had  not  Alcibiades  seized  a  favourable 
occasion  to  persuade  the  populace,  who  decided  all  questions  in  the  as- 
semblies, to  engage  in  a  distant  enterprise,  which  he  well  knew  would 
at  once  involve  all  Greece  in  the  flame  of  war. 

The  kindred  Greeks  of  Sicily  often  appealed  to  their  brethren  of  the 
mother  country,  to  aid  them  in  distress,  or  redress  their  grievances. 
They  sometimes  solicited  succour  against  the  Carthaginians,  their  in- 
veterate persecutors ;  at  other  times,  implored  assistance  against  a  do- 
mestic tyrant.  In  this  instance,  one  city  prayed  to  be  delivered  from 
the  vexatious  yoke  of  another.  The  eloquence  of  the  great  orator  Gor- 
gias,  was  employed  by  his  citizens,  the  Leontines,  to  plead  their  cause 
against  Syracuse,  in  the  Athenian  assembly.  The  business  was 
weighty ;  the  eloquence  was  manly  and  pathetic.  Nicias,  and  the 
other  friends  of  peace  saw  with  trembling  anxiety  the  passions  of  the 
multitude  inflamed ;  but  the  cool  admonitions  of  aged  and  considerate 
men,  were  spurned  as  the  counsels  of  timid  and  indolent  minds.  The 
impetuous  voice  of  a  young  man,  the  darling  of  a  licentious  faction,  ris- 
ing up,  with  grace  and  dignity  in  his  mien,  and  rolling  a  torrent  on 
his  tongue,  communicated  an  impulse  that  hurried  the  people  on  be- 
yond the  control  of  council  and  wisdom. 

The  disastrous  expedition  against  Sicily  fills  a  little  more  than  two 
years.  The  whole  interval  is  darkened  with  stormy  vicissitudes,  and 
closed  with  the  most  frightful  catastrophe.  Alcibiades,  who  urged  the 
enterprise,  and  Nicias,  who  opposed  it,  were  associated  in  command. 
The  embarkation  was  an  imposing  spectacle.  The  arrival  in  Sicily 
was  succeeded  by  a  well-directed  blow  against  a  small  city.  The  pro- 
mise of  success  seemed  fair,  when  messengers  arrived  from  Athens, 
commissioned  to  recall  and  arrest  Alcibiades  on  a  charge  of  having 
mutilated  the  statues  of  the  tutelar  Minerva,  in  a  midnight  frolic,  before 
his  departure.  His  demand  of  a  trial  before  he  embarked  had  been  re- 
fused by  the  same  capricious  mob  that  now  so  soon  demanded  his  re- 
turn and  condemnation.  On  his  way  home  he  escaped  from  his  keep- 
ers, and  flew  to  Sparta,  where  his  former  antipathy  was  forgotten,  in 
consideration  of  his  fresh  resentment,  and  hostile  measures  against  his 
own  country.  In  the  apprehension  of  a  modern,  the  mutilation  of  a 


LECT  II.]  OUfLINE    OF     HISTORY.  23 

statue,  even  of  Minerva,  would  be  less  criminal  than  deadly  hostility  to 
one's  own  country.     In  that  age  the  distinction  was  not  so  clear. 

The  lovers  of  tragedy  may  enjoy  an  ample  repast  in  any  minute  his- 
tory of  the  siege  of  Syracuse,  besieged  by  the  Athenians,  and  assisted 
by  the  Corinthians  and  Spartans.  The  vicissitudes  of  the  war  were 
sudden  and  frequent.  The  party  that  triumphs  in  success,  and  exults 
in  plenty  to-day,  to-morrow  sinks  into  despair  and  famine.  The  last 
sudden  reverse  was  fatal  to  Nicias  and  his  whole  army ;  though  the 
recent  arrival  of  Demosthenes  with  a  reinforcement,  had  seemed  only 
the  day  before  to  insure  the  Athenians  a  certain  triumph,  and  actually 
struck  the  besieged  with  panic  terror.  The  execution  of  the  two  Athe- 
nian generals,  and  the  destruction  of  the  whole  army,  disgraced  the 
character  of  Syracuse,  and  threw  Athens  into  consternation.  The  ge- 
neral panic  was  soon  succeeded  by  an  activity  and  enterprise  suited  to 
the  occasion.  The  late  misfortune  was  a  signal  of  revolt  to  some  of  the 
discontented  allies,  who  seized  the  favourable  juncture  to  regain  their 
independence,  or  rather  to  throw  themselves  into  the  more  cruel  arms 
of  the  Spartans.  As  they  were  soon  reduced  to  submission,  their  re- 
volt only  drew  upon  them  a  more  rigorous  servitude.  About  twenty 
years  of  the  war  were  now  accomplished  ;  the  remaining  seven  years 
carry  us  to  a  new  scene  of  action,  and  introduce  new  parties.  Darius  the 
Second,  or  Nothus,  filled  the  throne  of  Persia  from  3580  to  3600.  His 
father,  Artaxerxes  Longimanus,  had  submitted  to  a  humiliating  peace, 
imposed  by  Cimon,  in  3555.  Darius,  the  son,  lost  Egypt  by  revolt, 
about  the  middle  of  his  reign,  3590 ;  and  that  country  remained  inde- 
pendent upwards  of  sixty  years.  The  bloody  contest  between  Athens 
and  Sparta,  engaged  the  attention  of  the  Persian  monarch,  who  espous- 
ed the  cause  of  Sparta,  and  contributed  in  no  small  degree  to  the  calami- 
ties of  Athens.  The  future  operations  were  transferred  to  the  jEgean  sea., 
and  its  numerous  islands,  the  allies  of  Athens.  History  here  announces 
the  Spartan  Lysander,  an  odious  name,  or  glorious,  if  a  cold,  bloody  ca- 
reer can  make  it  so.  Alcibiades  comes  upon  the  stage  again.  He  escapee 
now  from  the  jealous  rage  of  the  Spartan  king,  who  took  no  fancy  to 
the  seducer  of  his  queen,  and  disowned  her  son.  The  versatile  genius 
of  Alcibiades  had  submitted  to  the  soup  and  meagre  diet  imposed  by 
the  laws  of  Lycurgus  ;  but  history  testifies  that  revenge  was  his  mo- 
tive, and  that  he  found  some  compensation  for  compliance  with  rude 
abstinence,  in  the  favour  of  the  Spartan  queen.  We  shall  soon  see 
him  arrayed  again  on  the  side  of  his  country. 

Darius  Nothus  displayed  the  ancient  grudge  of  his  family  against 
the  Athenians,  by  his  steady  adherence  to  the  Spartan  interest ;  but  his 
palace  of  Susa  was  at  an  immense  distance  from  the  theatre  of  opera- 
tions, which  were  necessarily  left  much  to  the  discretion  of  his  gover- 
nors or  satraps  in  Asia  Minor.  A  jealous  policy  divided  this  appoint- 
ment between  two  governors  of  equal  authority,  who  might  assist,  op- 
pose, or  watch  each  other,  as  their  respective  instructions  or  inclina- 
tions directed.  Alcibiades,  after  his  flight  from  Sparta,  took  refuge  at 
Sardis,  the  residence  of  the  satrap  of  Lydia. 

His  resentment  against  his  country  was  now  cooled,  or  abated,  by  a 
more  recent  injury  from  the  enemy  whom  his  advice  had  effectually 
served  for  several  years.  His  change  of  sentiment  and  purposes,  how- 


24  OUTLINE     OF     HISTORY.  [LBCT.  II< 

ever,  must  lurk  in  his  own  bosom,  till  it  could  be  revealed  with  safety 
and  advantage.  The  character  of  the  man  was  adapted  to  the  delicacy 
of  the  transaction.  His  rash,  precipitate  manner,  veiled  from  common 
penetration  the  duplicity  and  versatility  of  his  nature.  The  circum- 
stances of  the  day  imposed  the  deepest  dissimulation;  and,  as  the  ex- 
ercise of  that  quality  cost  him  nothing,  the  crafty  Athenian  still  pro- 
fessed to  consult  the  interest  of  Sparta.  Yet,  in  the  eye  of  a  Persian 
satrap,  it  was  no  offence  to  consider  the  welfare  of  the  Persian  mo- 
narch, and  some  subtle  insinuations  were  well  received.  The  policy  of 
humbling  Athens,  was  praised  as  sound,  since  she  had  inflicted  the  se- 
verest blows ;  but  the  total  ruin  of  Athens  was  incompatible  with  the 
peace  and  safety  of  the  world,  since  then  the  whole  power  of  Greece 
would  concentrate  at  Sparta,  and  the  throne  of  Asia  might  soon  be 
shaken  by  the  combination  of  powers,  that  a  just  foresight  would  ba- 
lance and  divide.  The  wisdom  of  these  suggestions,  dimly  apprehend- 
ed by  Darius  and  his  ministers,  was  afterwards  realized  too  late  by  his 
successors,  who  will  learn  to  tremble  at  the  name  of  Sparta,  and  finally, 
lie  prostrate  at  the  feet  of  a  Macedonian,  whose  dominion  over  Greece 
was  supinely  witnessed  by  the  court  of  Susa.  The  success  of  Alcibi- 
ades  was  sufficient  for  his  own  fame,  and  competent  to  save  his  coun- 
trymen from  every  thing  but  their  blind  infatuation,  which  nothing 
could  cure,  as  the  event  will  manifest. 

A  decisive  blow  had  been  meditated  by  the  speedy  co-operation  of  a 
newly-raised  Persian  fleet  with  that  of  Sparta,  then  stationed  in  the 
^Egean.  The  inaction  of  that  fleet  would  expose  the  Spartans,  confi- 
dent of  its  aid,  to  sudden  surprise,  and  disconcert  all  their  deep-laid 
plans.  The  negotiation  was  perplexed  with  difficulties.  The  satrap 
balanced  with  timid  scruples  ;  his  head  was  at  the  mercy  of  a  despot, 
whose  instructions  were  ambiguous  ;  his  motions  were  watched  by  the 
eagle  eye  of  a  rival  governor;  the  Spartans  pressed  his  hearty  co-ope- 
ration, and  partly  penetrated  his  secret  intentions.  Alcibiades  had  a 
wily  game  to  play ;  first,  to  enlist  the  Persian,  and  preserve  him  in  a 
steady  purpose  of  mind;  next,  to  apprize  and  consult  his  countrymen 
without  hazarding  too  free  a  publicity ;  then  to  reconcile  his  exaspe- 
rated countrymen  to  him,  regain  their  confidence,  and  reap  a  suitable 
harvest  of  honour  and  advantage  from  the  conclusion  of  the  whole 
transaction.  Prejudice,  patriotism,  mystery,  all  seemed  to  combine  to 
baffle  the  negotiation.  No  man  precisely  understood  what  he  advo- 
cated, or  what  he  opposed.  The  armies  were  abroad;  one  thing 
might  be  resolved  in  the  camp,  another  in  the  city  ;  confusion  pervad- 
ed both.  One  of  the  conditions  on  which  the  state  could  command 
the  services  of  the  exile,  was  a  revolution  in  government  which  de- 
prived the  people  of  their  tumultuary  power  in  the  assemblies,  and  con- 
fided all  authority  to  the  aristocracy  of  four  hundred. 

Finally,  every  demand  was  literally  complied  with,  and  Alcibiades 
was  received  with  transports  of  joy  at  the  head  of  the  forces.  The 
Persian  fleet  lay  inactive,  and  abandoned  the  Spartans  to  their  fate.  The 
Athenians  soon  exulted  in  their  repeated  victories.  The  Spartans 
either  fled,  or  suffered  inevitable  defeat  in  every  encounter.  The  Athe- 
nian fleet  from  the  ^Egean  passed  into  the  Hellespont,  where  the  same 
victorious  career  distinguished  the  new  admiral.  The  enemies  were 


LECT.  II.]  OUTLINE     OP     HISTORY.  25 

were  routed,  and  the  cities  recovered.  These  honourable  deeds  cover- 
ed the  hero  with  a  transient  glory,  which  reconciled  his  mind  to  revi- 
sit his  native  city.  His  appearance  at  Athens  was  hailed  by  the 
noisy  acclamations  of  a  gazing,  shouting,  and  whimsical  multitude. 
The  government,  which  had  been  changed  to  aristocracy  by  his  re- 
quest, was  now  again  remodelled,  on  account  of  the  excesses  and  usur- 
pations of  the  new  administration;  but  the  aristocratic  features  were 
still  retained,  and  the  same  abuses  were  practised.  At  length,  having 
enjoyed  the  popular  homage  due  to  his  late  exploits,  he  set  out  to  win  new 
laurels  in  the  same  field.  The  Spartans  had  collected  new  forces,  but 
prudently  avoided  the  contest  which  Alcibiades  eagerly  sought.  One 
unhappy  measure  plunged  him  again  into  adversity,  and  hastened  his 
country's  ruin.  Confident  of  the  friendship  of  the  Persian  satrap,  he 
ventured  to  visit  him  at  Sardis,  in  hopes  of  pecuniary  assistance.  The 
governor  labouring  under  the  displeasure  of  his  master  for  the  aid  al- 
ready lent,  threw  his  imprudent  visiter  into  prison,  from  which  he  with 
difficulty  escaped,  and  returned  to  his  fleet.  To  crown  the  miseries 
of  his  life,  that  fleet  having  engaged  the  enemy  during  his  absence, 
contrary  to  his  express  orders,  had  been  defeated  and  shattered.  His 
endeavours  to  bring  on  a  new  engagement  were  fruitless ;  murmurs 
arose;  his  recent  services  were  forgotten  in  a  moment;  the  outcry  was 
irresistible;  he  was  again  driven  into  banishment  for  the  slightest 
fault  of  his  guilty  life,  if  his  absence  on  such  an  occasion  could  be 
esteemed  a  fault. 

Ten  new  commanders  were  now  appointed,  and  they  were  not  long 
without  an  opportunity  of  revenging  the  late  defeat.  Off  the  isles  of  the 
Arginusae,  they  gained  a  complete  victory  over  the  Spartans.  But  a 
sudden  tempest  defied  all  their  endeavours  to  snatch  their  dead  and  dy- 
ing companions  from  the  waves,  and  perform  the  last  pious  offices.  As 
the  tempest  could  not  be  called  to  any  account,  an  enraged  and  sottish 
multitude  made  the  unhappy  generals  suffer  the  forfeit  of  their  heads 
for  what  human  power  could  not  prevent ;  yet  their  heads  were  the 
last  resource  of  a  falling  and  ill-fated  city.  Socrates  was  left.  But 
surely  his  sober  lectures  had  been  as  well  addressed  to  the  raging  tem- 
pest that  swelled  the  sea,  as  to  a  brutal  populace,  that  stifled  his  sooth- 
ing expostulations  with  their  savage  and  tumultuous  outcries.  It  re- 
quires an  effort  of  patience  to  forbear  exclaiming  in  this  place,  Let  a 
speedy  and  vindictive  judgment  overtake  this  wrath-provoking  people. 
Reflection  softens  and  sobers  our  indignation.  Their  folly  accelerated 
their  fate,  and  a  just  pity  for  their  ignorance,  would  even  crave  for 
them  the  indulgence  of  a  milder  doom. 

We  may  venture  to  assert  that  the  spirit  of  Athens  was  broken,  and 
its  strength  nearly  exhausted,  since  a  single  defeat  decided  the  contest. 
The  cool  and  cunning  Lysander  declined  the  repeated  challenges  of 
the  Athenian  fleet  cruising  in  the  Hellespont,  but  seized  the  first  care- 
less moment  of  his  taunting  adversaries,  surprised  them  in  disorder, 
routed,  and  dispersed  them.  Conon,  the  Athenian  commander,  afraid 
or  ashamed  to  seek  shelter  at  home,  took  refuge  in  the  island  of  Cy- 
prus, where  he  remained  ten  years,  till  he  found  a  glorious  opportu- 
nity to  efface  the  stigma  of  this  defeat,  and  supply  the  means  of  re- 

4 


26  OUTLINE     OF     HISTORY.  [LECT.  III. 

building  those  walls,  whose  ruin  were  occasioned,  or  at  least  hastened, 
by  his  imprudence. 

Passing  over  intermediate  transactions  of  inferior  note,  we  follow  the 
victorious  Lysander  at  once  to  the  port  and  walls  of  Athens.  The  at- 
tack was  brisk  and  incessant ;  the  defence  was  fierce  and  desperate. 
Famine  soon  added  to  the  miseries  of  the  besieged  ;  the  surrender  of 
the  city  was  delayed  about  three  months,  when  perfidy  within  aided 
the  valour  of  the  assailants.  The  ports  and  the  walls  were  destroyed 
by  the  rage  and  jealousy  of  the  conquerors  ;  the  citadel  was  preserved 
to  shelter  a  Spartan  garrison  from  the  fury  of  the  people  they  were  left 
to  oppress  and  harass.  Thirty  Athenian  citizens,  devoted  to  the  inter- 
ests of  Sparta,  were  appointed  to  lord  it  over  the  city,  to  deride  its 
groans,  and  aggravate  its  miseries.  We  shall  see  these  Thirty  Ty- 
rants hurled  from  their  guilty  eminence :  but  the  narrative  lies  beyond 
the  limits  of  this  Lecture,  which  do*  ,-.s  with  the  taking  of  Sparta, 
in  3600. 

The  Greek  philosophers  that  appeared  in  succession  for  the  two 
centuries  before  this  great  event,  have  been  overrated  individually ; 
but  their  progressive  excellence  is  a  subject  of  pleasing  inquiry.  They 
all  possessed  acuteness  of  thought,  and  a  singular  felicity  and  fluency 
of  language.  Their  temperance  and  activity  invigorated  their  powers 
both  of  mind  and  body.  But  their  exercises,  both  mental  and  gymnas- 
tic, were  often,  or  rather  generally,  frivolous.  Their  habit  of  travel- 
ling through  Asia,  Egypt,  the  islands,  and  states  of  Greece,  increased 
their  stock  of  intelligence,  as  well  as  their  natural  acuteness ;  but  it 
also  filled  their  minds  with  new  absurdities.  Thales,  Pythagoras, 
Anaximander,  Anaximenes,  Anaxagoras,  Archelaus,  and  Socrates, 
flourished  in  this  period.  Plato,  comes  next,  and  then  Aristotle;  yet 
philosophy  was  in  its  infancy,  while  poetry,  oratory,  sculpture,  and 
architecture,  rose  to  great  perfection.  The  drama  aiso  was  zealously 
and  successfully  cultivated:  .ZEschylus,  Euripides,  Sophocles,  courted 
the  tragic  muse,  while  the  comic  Aristophanes  lashed  their  faults, 
and  ridiculed  their  rival  pretensions 


LECTURE    III. 

IF  a  true  lover  of  romance  should  be  compelled  to  forego  fiction, 
and  accept  facts,  there  are  some  periods  of  history  that  would  almost 
reconcile  him  to  the  odious  exchange.  We  might,  perhaps,  hazard 
an  opinion  that  some  genuine  narratives,  suitably  decorated  with  the 
graces  of  style,  would  assume  so  much  an  air  of  fable  as  to  impose  up- 
on the  most  exquisite  connoisseurs.  The  events  of  the  century  review- 
ed in  the  preceding  lecture,  are  calculated  to  engage  the  mind,  and 
excite  an  ardent  curiosity  to  learn  the  sequel.  The  pursuit  answers 
the  fullest  expectations  that  romantic  dreams  could  inspire — intrepid 
enterprize,  heroic  deeds,  frightful  perils,  lamentable  sufferings,  shock- 
ing crimes,  cruel  deaths,  sudden  escapes,  marvellous  deliverances,  love, 
pity,  malice,  poison,  all  the  deformities,  and  all  the  perfections  that 
mingle  in  the  brilliant  fancies  and  deep  conceits  of  modern  writers  of 
fiction. 


LECT    III.]  OUTLINE     OF     HISTORY.  27 

A  crowd  of  important  transactions  distinguish  the  very  opening  of 
this  eventful  century.  The  deliverance  of  Athens;  the  usurpation  of 
Dionysius  the  Elder,  at  Syracuse,  and  his  wars  with  the  Carthagi- 
nians ;  the  death  of  Darius  Nothus,  and  accession  of  his  son,  Arta- 
xerxes  Mnemon ;  the  expedition  of  Cyrus  the  Younger  against  his 
brother  Artaxerxes,  and  the  famous  retreat  of  the  ten  thousand  Greeks, 
conducted  and  described  by  Xenophon. 

The  Athenian  populace  deserved,  and  have  received  the  execration 
of  posterity ;  they  seemed  to  court  the  bitter  judgment  that  Providence 
inflicted  :  yet  the  name  of  Athens  is  dear  to  mankind  ;  and  its  calami- 
ties enlist  the  sympathies  of  the  coldest  reader  in  every  age.  The 
number  of  illustrious  personages  that  arose  to  adorn  that  little  city, 
redeems  its  character  from  the  infamy  and  odium  reflected  upon  it  by 
a  capricious  and  cruel  multitude;  and  the  severest  censor  never  over- 
looks the  rudeness  and  ignorance  common  in  those  times  to  the  lower 
classes,  in  every  known  city  and  country.  Despotism  is  a  curse  to 
every  people,  and  democracy  is  only  a  blessing  to  enlightened  commu- 
nities. Misery  is  the  fated  condition  of  every  ignorant  people,  and  no 
form  of  government  can  make  them  happy. 

Whatever  punishment  the  Athenians  deserved,  they  amply  suffered 
under  the  yoke  of  Sparta  and  the  Thirty  Tyrants.  A  faction  long 
devoted  to  the  interest  of  the  Spartans,  and  now  their  chosen  instru- 
ments of  oppression,  were  not  slow  in  selecting  their  victims,  nor  tirnid 
in  the  business  of  torture  and  execution.  Revenge  marked  out  its  ob- 
jects ;  jealousy  rolled  its  saffron  eyes  around  for  prey;  and  wanton 
cruelty  fixed  its  fangs  on  all  that  reveng-e  and  jealousy  would  spare. 
Grief  was  hushed  into  silence ;  a  tear  or  sigh  was  treason ;  and  men 
without  a  murmur  or  visible  emotion,  must  witness  the  cruel  stroke 
that  robbed  them  of  their  innocent  and  unoffending  friends.  Socrates, 
we  know  not  how,  was  spared,  to  be  the  victim  of  licentious  freedom. 
Voluntary  exile  prolonged  the  life  of  some  for  daring  enterprizes  and 
noble  deeds. 

Thrasybulus,  with  a  little  band  of  kindred  spirits,  found  an  asylum  at 
Thebes.  The  Thebans  had  blindly  fought  the  battles  of  Sparta,  in  hopes 
of  humbling  Athens,  without  once  reflecting  that  they  were  forging 
their  own  chains.  But  they  were  not  long  in  making  the  discovery, 
after  the  capture  of  that  city,  and  the  conclusion  of  the  war  had  ren- 
dered their  equal  alliance  unnecessary,  and  even  offensive  to  Sparta. 
This  late  discovery  reconciled  the  Thebans  to  their  prostrate  enemies, 
and  prepared  them  to  give  a  kind  reception  to  Thrasybulus  and  his 
party,  the  generous  deliverers  of  their  country.  To  appreciate  the  he- 
roic enterprize  which  we  are  about  to  witness,  we  must  recollect  that  a 
Spartan  garrison  in  the  citadel  of  Athens  guarded  the  cruel  despotism 
of  the  thirty  vigilant  tyrants.  Spartan  spies  infested  the  streets,  and 
invaded  the  houses  of  Thebes,  and  every  motion  of  the  exiles  was 
scrutinized.  Yet  such  was  the  secrecy,  skill,  and  caution  of  these  da- 
ring adventurers,  that  their  departure  in  different  disguises,  and  va- 
rious directions,  was  unnoticed  at  Thebes,  and  first,  announced  to  the 
admiring  Athenians  in  the  surprise  and  capture  of  the  port  of  Pirasus. 
On  the  first  alarm,  the  Thirty  Tyrants  led  their  chosen  band  of  armed 
citizens  to  the  instant  slaughter,  as  they  thought,  of  the  returning  ex- 


28  OUTLINE     OF     HISTORY.  [LECT  .III. 

iles,  so  few  in  number.  But  it  was  a  combat  of  a  few  heroes  with  a 
host  of  slaves,  who  had  submitted  to  be  the  instruments  of  a  despotic 
sway  over  their  unarmed  fellow- citizens,  without  courage  or  spirit  to 
brave  the  assault  of  heroes,  inspired  with  a  love  of  freedom,  and  stung 
by  recent  injury.  The  first  onset  decided  the  victory  ;  and  when  the 
eiiles  called  out  to  their  flying  fellow-citizens  to  desert  the  tyrants,  and 
join  the  standard  of  freedom,  the  invitation  was  instantly  accepted  :  the 
soldiers,  just  before  the  prop  of  tyranny,  now  caught  the  enthusiasm  of 
their  returning  brethren,  marched  with  them  to  the  city,  and  equally 
enjoyed  the  pleasing  spectacle  of  their  cruel  masters  flying  in  all  di- 
rections from  the  sudden  tempest  that  burst  upon  their  heads.  This  no- 
ble transaction  is  dated  in  the  year  3604 ;  and  is  rendered  the  more 
striking  by  a  precisely  similar  enterprise,  twenty-two  years  later,  in 
362(5,  by  which  Pelopidas,  and  other  Theban  exiles  at  Athens,  deli- 
vered Thebes  from  the  fangs  of  the  perfidious  and  cruel  Spartans. 

The  first  transports  of  joy  at  Athens  were  succeeded  by  just  appre- 
hensions of  the  power  and  vengeance  of  Sparta  ;  but  the  mild  and  pa- 
cific disposition  of  Pausanias,  one  of  the  Spartan  kings,  checked  the 
sullen  fury  of  his  people,  and  secretly  favoured  the  interest  of  Athens. 
He  was  obliged  to  dissemble  his  views,  and  appear  to  attempt  the  re- 
covery of  the  city ;  but  his  well-timed  cautions  and  delays  saved  it 
even  from  any  serious  trial  of  strength.  The  name  of  Sparta,  how- 
ever, was  terrible,  and  for  some  years  inspired  the  Athenians  with  a 
cautious  and  dissembling  spirit,  which  reduced  them,  in  appearance, 
to  a  secondary  rank,  till  the  long  contest  between  Spqrta  and  Thebes 
emboldened  them  once  more  to  resume  their  ancient  station  of  equality. 

After  the  deliverance  of  Athens,  the  states  of  Greece  struggled  about 
.forty  years  against  the  domineering  encroachments  of  Sparta,  till  the 
battle  of  Mantinea,  3(541,  in  which  Epaminondas,  the  Theban,  tri- 
umphed over  that  haughty  power,  and  humbled  it  to  a  secondary 
grade.  Had  the  Spartans  rested  satisfied  with  a  moderate  dominion, 
or  a  firm  and  temperate  use  of  their  superiority,  they  might  have 
swayed  all  Greece  for  a  long  time,  and  prevented  those  wasting  wars 
that  demolished  their  own  power,  and  reduced  the  whole  country  un- 
der the  dominion  of  Macedon.  Instead  of  exercising  a  mild  policy, 
and  reconciling  the  minds  of  men  to  their  pretension,  by  uniting  them 
all  in  some  great  project,  they  rashly  tried  the  patience  of  their  allies 
and  subjects,  trusted  entirely  to  their  physical  strength  to  insure  obe- 
dience, and  ventured  alone  to  attempt  the  subversion  of  the  Persian 
monarchy,  without  deigning  to  consult  their  neighbours,  or  allow  them 
to  participate  in  the  glory. 

The  invasion  of  Asia  by  the  Spartans,  brings  into  view  a  hero  who 
long  figured  the  chief  of  the  Greeks,  and  valiantly  sustained  the  sink- 
ing glory  of  Sparta,  till  the  fatal  battle  of  Mantinea.  We  allude  to 
king  Agesilaus,  \vho,  with  the  aid  of  Lysander,  supplanted  Leotychi- 
des,  the  lawful  heir,  on  pretence  that  he  was  not. the  son  of  Agis,  but 
of  Alcibiades.  Posterity  is  indifferent  to  the  parties,  and  could  not  de- 
r.ide  their  pretensions  on  any  known  testimony.  It  is  sufficient  for  us 
that  Agesilaus  disowned  his  brother's  heir,  and  got  him  set  aside. 
Two  such  generals  as  Agesilaus,  and  his  friend  Lysander,  were  capa- 
ble of  leading  the  Spartans  to  glorious  exploits,  and  of  shaking  a  great 


LECT.  III.]  OUTLINE     OF     HISTORY.  29 

empire  by  their  effective  enterprises.  Their  pretence  for  invasion  was 
the  protection  of  the  Asiatic  Greeks  from  the  tyranny  of  Persia,  under 
which  they  had  fallen  after  the  downfall  of  Athens.  Their  destructive 
incursions  soon  betrayed  more  extensive  schemes,  and  the  facility  with 
'which  they  abandoned  the  Greeks  of  Asia  in  a  treaty  a  few  years 
afier  with  the  Persian  monarch,  unveiled  their  selfish  policy.  *  The 
Persian  monarch  witnessed  their  progress  with  panic  terror,  in- 
structed by  the  folly  of  his  father,  Darius  Nothus,  who  had  aided  those 
very  Spartans  against  Athens,  and  admonished  by  the  celebrated  ex- 
pedition of  his  brother,  who  had  lately  penetrated  to  the  heart  of  his 
dominions,  and  menaced  his  throne. 

In  the  midst  of  his  embarrassment  and  dread,  a  well-timed  policy 
brought  relief  to  the  mind  of  the  Persian.  He  saw  the  use  that  he 
might  make  of  the  discontent  of  Greece,  \Vhich  would  kindle  into  a 
flame,  if  suitably  encouraged  with  timely  aid.  Secret  embassies  en- 
couraged the  disaffected  states  to  take  up  arms,  and  liberal  supplies  of 
money  actually  enabled  them  to  commence  their  hostile  operations 
with  energy  and  success.  Argos,  Corinth,  Thebes,  broke  out  into 
open  and  decisive  revolt.  Athens  pursued  a  more  cautious  course, 
from  a  dread  of  Sparta ;  but  her  feelings  were  equally  hostile,  and  her 
measures,  on  the  whole,  favoured  the  league.  Agesilaus  was  urging 
on  his  career  of  victory  in  Asia  Minor,  and  flattering  his  hopes  with 
the  promise  of  a  mighty  conquest,  when  he  received  a  peremptory 
command  from  his  country  to  return  into  Greece  and  defend  it  against 
the  formidable  power  of  the  league.  His  obedience  was  as  prompt  as 
the  order  was  painful.  He  marched  through  Thrace  into  Bceotia, 
encountered  the  confederates  in  an  indecisive  combat,  and  retired  to 
Sparta,  having  merely  checked  the  success  of  the  allies.  This  was 
the  year  3610. 

The  same  year  exhibited  on  another  scene  a  more  decisive  result. 
In  the  year  3600,  we  saw  Athens  taken  by  Lysander,  after  the  defeat 
and  flight  of  Conon,  who  took  refuge  from  the  power  of  Sparta,  and  the 
feeble  rage  of  his  own  people,  at  the  island  of  Cyprus.  Thrasybulus 
had  restored  freedom  to  his  country,  but  the  ports  and  walls  still  lay 
prostrate  in  ruin,  and  seemed  fated  long  to  continue  so.  History  re- 
cords with  pleasure  and  surprise,  that  these  ports  and  walls  rose  again, 
rebuilt  by  the  spoils  of  Sparta,  and  the  gold  of  Persia,  which  Conon 
won,  and  bore  in  triumph  to  Athens.  Conon  had  received  a  commis- 
sion from  the  king  of  Persia  to  command  a  large  fleet  fitted  out  against 
the  Spartans.  Eager  to  wipe  off  the  stigma  of  his  former  defeat,  the 
intrepid  Athenian  sought  the  combat,  carried  the  victory,  broke  the 
naval  power  of  Sparta,  and  flew  to  his  native  Athens  with  the  rich 
booty,  which  was  at  once  appropriated  to  rebuild  the  walls,  and 
strengthen  and  beautify  the  city.  Thus,  ten  years  after  Athens  was  dis- 
mantled, in  consequence  of  Conon's  defeat  in  the  Hellespont  by  Lysan- 
der, its  works  rose  again,  with  their  original  strength  and  beauty,  in 
consequence  of  this  victory.  From  that  time  she  gradually  renewed 
her  ancient  alliances,  and  recovered  her  former  islands  and  cities,  but 
could  never  regain  the  political  standing  which  she  supported  in  the 
time  of  Pericles. 

Such  was  substantially  the  state  of  all  the  parties  at  the  expiration  of 


•» 

30  OUTLINE    OF     HISTORY.  [LECT.  III. 

ten  years,  3610.  The  recall  of  Agesilaus  from  Asia,  relieved  the  king 
of  Persia,  and  checked'the  operations  of  the  league.  The  victory  of 
Conon  broke  the  Spartan  naval  power,  and  restored  the  superiority  at 
sea  to  the  Athenians.  The  succeeding  ten  years  was  an  anxious  state 
of  ferment  and  disaffection;  the  Spartans  watching  every  motion  with 
jealous  care,  and  all  the  other  states  restless,  impatient  of  a  superior, 
but  afraid  to  rise  or  hazard  a  doubtful  conflict.  Finally,  in  3617,  the 
Spartans,  conscious  of  their  inability  to  repress  much  longer  the  spirit 
of  revolt,  sought  relief  by  an  expedient  that  inflicted  an  eternal  stigma 
upon  their  character.  They  agreed  to  abandon  the  Greeks  of  Asia 
Minor  to  the  mercy  of  the  Persian  king,  in  exchange  for  his  protec- 
tion of  their  tyranny  in  Greece,  though  they  had  so  lately  assailed  his 
dominions  under  a  pretence  of  vindicating  the  liberty  of  those  very 
Asiatic  Greeks,  now  so  willingly  abandoned. 

The  clamours  of  discontent  and  indignation  were  now  heard  with 
the  most  provoking  apathy  by  the  haughty  Spartans,  secure  in  their 
shameful  alliance  with  a  Persian  king.  Negotiation  was  busy;  re- 
monstrance was  loud;  but  nothing  could  change  the  purpose  of  a 
Spartan.  In  3622,  Thebes  fell  into  the  hands  of  a  Spartan  army,  by 
a  stroke  of  perfidy  that  would  stain  the  character  of  any  nation  in  any 
age.  The  army  was  on  its  march  through  Boaotia  to  Thrace,  entered 
the  city  with  honest  professions  and  reluctant  permission,  perfidiously 
seized  the  citadel,  and  set  up  a  Spartan  tyranny  over  the  terrified  inha- 
bitants. This  wretched  condition  endured  about  five  years,  during 
which,  very  few  events  happened  worthy  of  notice.  In  3627,  Thebes 
was  unexpectedly  delivered  by  the  bold  enterprise  of  a  band  of  Theban 
exiles  at  Athens,  headed  by  Pelopidas,  and  assisted  by  the  cool,  deli- 
berate aid  of  Epaminondas.  The  whole  narrative  has  the  air  of  ro- 
mance, more  than  of  real  history.  The  Athenians  lent  a  favourable 
countenance  to  a  bold  enterprise,  but  still  respected  the  power  of  Spar- 
ta too  much  to  hazard  an  open  contest.  The  design  was  entrusted  only 
to  a  few  chosen  heroes,  who  proceeded  in  the  disguise  of  huntsmen, 
entered  the  city  by  different  gates,  and  united,  according  to  concert,  in 
the  dead  of  night.  Some  trusty  citizens  were  prepared  to  receive 
them,  and  join  in  the  sudden  blow  of  surprise  and  slaughter.  The 
calm  philosophy  of  Epaminondas  had  veiled  his  heroic  virtues  from 
the  roving  eyes  of  jealousy,  when  the  impatient  and  intrepid  Pelopi- 
das was  pursued  into  banishment.  The  heroes  were  equal  in  courage 
and  integrity,  and  unlike  in  all  other  qualities.  Both  sighed  for  the 
liberty  of  Thebes,  one  a  silent  spectator  of  the  oppression  that  drove  the 
other  from  its  bosom. 

The  heedless  hour  of  debauch  was  chosen  to  assail  and  despatch  the 
tyrants.  The  rustling  of  a  leaf,  or  the  barking  of  a  dog  might  have 
defeated  the  conspiracy,  stifled  the  fame  of  two  illustrious  men,  and 
changed  the  history  of  Greece.  But  the  convivial  security  of  the  ty- 
rants, the  fortune  and  fearful  vigilance  of  the  exiles,  conducted  the  con- 
spiracy to  a  successful  issue.  The  tyrants  fell  by  the  daggers  of  intre- 
pid men  ;  the  noise  of  the  scuffle  awakened  the  city  to  the  horrors  of 
commotion,  and  the  agonies  of  dreadful  suspense.  No  man  could  in- 
form another  of  the  cause  of  the  tumult.  Shrieks  and  screams  express- 
ed the  distressing  uncertainty  of  women  and  children,  and  increased 


LECT.  III.]  OUTLINE    OP    HISTORY.  31 

the  perplexities  of  the  men.  The  appearance  of  day  disclosed  the  fall 
of  tyrants  and  the  triumph  of  liberty.  In  a  moment,  every  man  was  a 
hero;  one  impulse  carried  the  exulting  populace  to  the  citadel;  the 
fury  of  attack  was  for  a  while  resisted,  but  soon  prevailed,  and  Thebes 
was  forever  delivered  from  Spartan  tyrants  and  Spartan  garrisons, 
in  3627. 

As  soon  as  this  news  reached  Sparta,  an  army  was  put  in  motion; 
but  all  attempts  to  penetrate  to  Thebes  failed.  An  indecisive  conflict 
marks  the  next  six  years,  till  the  glorious  battle  of  Leuctra,  in  which 
Epaminondas  and  Pelopidas  marie  a  bloody  havoc  in  the  Spartan  ranks, 
and  gained  a  complete  triumph.  In  an  interval  of  eight  years  more, 
till  the  battle  of  Mantinea,  nothing  very  memorable  occurred,  except 
the  famous  expeditions  of  Pelopidas  into  Thessaly,  against  Alexander, 
tyrant  of  Pherae.  Prompt  to  obey  the  summons  of  the  Thessalians, 
oppressed  by  that  cruel  and  perfidious  tyrant,  Pelopidas  entered  the 
country  with  some  Theban  soldiers,  defeated  the  tyrant,  and  then  fol- 
lowing the  impulse  of  precipitate  valour,  rushed  into  his  enemy's 
snares,  and  became  a  prisoner.  He  was  not  permitted  to  languish 
long  in  that  situation.  The  inviolable  friendship  of  Epaminondas  soon 
brought  another  army  that  humbled  the  tyrant,  and  set  his  captive 
free.  But  the  groans  of  the  oppressed  people  soon  called  Pelopidas 
back  to  Thessaly,  and  victory  again  perched  upon  his  standard ;  but 
the  heat  of  resentment  again  urged  him  to  encounter  the  tyrant  in  sin- 
gle combat,  and  he  fell,  slaughtered  by  the  tyrant's  guards,  a  victim  to 
rash  courage. 

The  fame  of  his  justice  and  magnanimity  was  known  to  the  neigh- 
bouring nations.  The  Persian  king  received  him  in  the  character  of 
an  ambassador,  and  honoured  him  above  others  connected  in  the  em- 
bassy. The  mother  of  Philip  of  Macedon  drew  him  to  that  court  to 
adjust  the  quarrels  among  her  sons,  disputing  the  succession  of  their 
deceased  father,  Amyutas  the  Second.  On  this  occasion  he  was  per- 
mitted to  take  Philip,  the  youngest  son,  then  ten  years  of  age,  among 
other  hostages,  to  bind  the  parties  to  his  award.  The  residence  of 
Philip  at  Thebes,  for  ten  years,  and  his  extraordinary  education,  then 
under  the  greatest  masters  of  Greece,  was  fruitful  in  consequences. 
We  shall  soon  see  him  mount  the  throne  of  Macedon,  after  the  death 
of  his  elder  brothers.  Pelopidas  died  3638,  three  years  before  the 
battle  of  Mantinea,  which  consummated  the  glory  of  his  country,  and 
reduced  Sparta  to  the  second  rank  of  states. 

From  3610  to  3641,  the  Spartans  and  Thebans  displayed  the  jealous 
animosity  which  lust  of  power  on  one  side,  and  impatience  of  the  yoke 
on  the  other,  never  fail  to  engender.  There  were,  however,  but  a  few 
active  and  bloody  campaigns  between  them  for  so  long  an  interval  oi 
hostility;  the  rancour,  irritation,  and  invective  never  ceased  ;  irreso- 
lute campaigns,  skirmishes,  and  commotions,  were  frequent;  but  the  de- 
tail is  tedious.  The  deliverance  of  Thebes  by  the  exiles,  the  battle  of 
Leuctra,  and  the  battle  of  Mantinea,  are  the  principal  events  of  inter- 
est; and  there  was  an  interval  of  several  years  between  them.  Sparta 
was,  for  the  first  time,  profaned  by  the  hostile  tread  of  the  Theban 
army,  led  by  Epaminondas:  he  was  repulsed,  and  obliged  to  retreat  to 
Mantinea,  in  Arcadia,  where  he  fought  the  enraged  foe,  and  died  in 


32  OUTLINE     OF     HISTORY.  [LECT.   III. 

the  arms  oi  victory ;  a  victory  that  raised  his  own  little  state  to  the 
first  rank,  and  prostrated  the  power  of  Sparta. 

After  the  close  of  this  memorable  contest,  the  short  calm  that  suc- 
ceeded was  soon  interrupted  by  a  new  and  more  bloody  conflict,  called 
the  Phocian,  or  Sacred  war,  which  completed  the  disasters  of  Greece, 
by  introducing-  the  conquering  arms  of  Philip.  That  sagacious  and 
aspiring  young  man  unexpectedly  found  the  throne  of  his  father  left  open 
to  his  ambition  by  the  death  of  two  elder  brothers,  and  the  infancy  of  the 
lawful  heir.  Fearing  some  detention  at  Thebes,  he  stole  clandestine- 
ly away,  flew  to  Macedon,  and  usurped  the  throne  of  his  nephew  at  the 
age  of  twenty,  having  been  a  hostage  at  Thebes  ten  years.  His  resi- 
dence in  Greece  set  before  his  eyes  the  best  and  brightest  models  for 
imitation  in  the  arts  of  government  and  war :  he  witnessed  the  noble 
examples  of  Epaminondas  and  Pelopidas,  and  followed  them  in  their 
campaigns.  He  listened  with  raptures  to  the  lectures  of  Plato,  Aris- 
totle, Epaminondas,  and  other  sages  of  that  period  ;  in  fine,  to  the  na- 
tural fierceness  and  subtilty  of  a  barbarian,  he  united  all  the  refine- 
ment, policy,  and  learning  that  education  could  bestow  in  the  most 
flourishing  period  of  Grecian  literature. 

Difficulties  beset  this  young  monarch  in  every  shape,  and  on  every 
hand.  The  claim  of  an  infant  nephew  stood  in  his  way;  the  compe- 
tition of  brothers  perplexed  him  ;  barbarous  neighbours,  despising  his 
youth,  harassed  his  kingdom  ;  his  own  barbarous  subjects  disputed  his 
sway  and  preferred  his  competitors ;  and  the  Athenians  espoused  the 
cause  of  his  brothers.  Merely  to  say  that  he  surmounted  all  these  for- 
midable difficulties,  would  be  praise  due  to  him  in  common  with  a  thou- 
sand others,  who  have  overcome  as  great,  if  not  greater  obstacles.  But 
to  glide  through  them  all,  without  appearing  to  struggle,  or  fearing  to 
sink,  was  a  felicity  peculiar  to  this  extraordinary  personage.  The  per- 
petual wars  that  engaged  his  attention,  never  ruffled  the  man  nor  jeo- 
pardized the  monarch.  He  flew  from  place  to  place  with  the  same 
ease  as  speed  ;  his  victory  was  sure,  and  his  attack  or  defence  as  cool 
as  it  waa  fierce.  Conscience  interposed  no  check  ;  its  voice  was  silent 
or  stifled,  and  the  politician  predominated.  No  good  man  could  under- 
take or  accomplish  what  Philip  did ;  but  he  was  a  greater  and  better 
man  than  his  irresistible  son,  Alexander ;  and  it  is  as  ridiculous  to  mea- 
sure the  vices  of  Philip  by  the  invectives  of  Demosthenes,  as  to  esti- 
mate the  virtues  of  Augustus  by  the  praises  oi  Virgil.  The  same  in- 
dulgence that  would  give  Augustus  no  harsher  name  than  bloody  ty- 
rant, would  rank  Philip  among  saints. 

Such  was  the  conqueror  of  Greece ;  and  the  civil  distractions  of 
Greece  favoured  his  inordinate  ambition.  The  Athenians  had  allies 
and  colonies  on  the  whole  coast  of  Thrace  and  Macedon,  adjoining 
Philip's  hereditary  territories,  and  tempting  his  ambition  ;  and  they 
had  afforded  him  some  provocation  by  espousing  the  cause  of  his  com- 
petitors and  enemies.  As  soon  as  he  had  composed  the  dissensions  of 
his  own  kingdom,  repressed  the  barbarians,  and  established  his  throne, 
he  commenced  a  crafty  course  of  intrigue  and  war,  to  reduce  all  around 
him  to  his  subjection.  He  caressed  the  cities  in  alliance  with  Athens, 
and  allured  them  to  his  interest  by  promises  of  protection  and  inde- 
pendence. 


INTRODUCTION 


TO 


ANCIENT   GEOGRAPHY.' 


THE  reader  who  has  occasion  to  consult  maps,  may  usefully  direct 
his  researches  in  the  following  order  and  manner  :  On  a  map  represent- 
ing the  whole  world,  or,  at  any  rate,  the  whole  Eastern  continent,  the 
situation  of  the  Mediterranean  Sea  between  Europe  and  Africa  should 
be  carefully  noticed;  and  also  the  Strait  of  Gibraltar,  through  which 
this  sea  communicates  with  the  Atlantic.  Observe  the  situation  of 
Spain,  France,  Italy;  ancient  Greece  comprised  in  modern  Turkey  in 
Europe,  and  Asia  Minor  comprised  in  modem  Turkey  in  Asia,  all  on 
the  north  side  of  the  sea.  On  the  south  side,  Morocco,  Algiers,  Tunis, 
Tripoli,  Lybia,  (including  Cyrene.)  and  Egypt.  On  the  east  end  of 
the  sea;  Syria,  Phoenicia,  and  Palestine,  included  in  modern  Turkey 
in  Asia.  Observe  the  different  expansions  and  contractions  of  this 
sea;  its  gulfs,  bays,  and  arms.  Notice  the  situation  of  Greece,  be- 
tween the  Ionian  sea,  and  the  ^Egean  or  Archipelago.  Bound  Asia 
Minor,  and  notice  particularly  the  succession  of  seas  and  straits  that 
form  the  chain  of  communication  between  the  Mediterranean,  and 
Black,  or  Euxine  seas.  The  subdivisions  of  Greece  and  Asia  Minor, 
are  given  at  the  end  of  the  chart. 

Trace  a  voyage  round  the  peninsula  of  Africa,  through  the  Atlantic 
and  Indian  oceans  into  the  Red  sea,  which  lies  between  Arabia  on  the 
east,  and  Abyssinia  and  Nubia,  (comprised  in  Upper  Etheopia,)  and 
Egypt  on  the  west.  Another  voyage  round  the  peninsula  of  Arabia, 
into  the  Persian  Gulf,  conducts  to  ancient  Chaldea,  or  Shinar,  situated 
at  the  head  of  the  Gulf,  on  the  rivers  Euphrates  and  Tigris.  North 
of  Chaldea  lies  Mesopotamia,  between  the  Euphrates  and  Tigris,  which 
have  their  sources  in  Armenia,  still  further  north.  Assyria  lies  east 
of  the  Tigris,  which  separates  it  from  Mesopotamia.  Media  and  Per- 
sia lie  between  the  Caspian  and  Persian  Gulf,  and  east  of  Chaldea  and 
Assyria.  Babylon  was  situated  on  the  Euphrates,  Nineveh  on  the 
Tigris.  The  Assyrian  Empire  embraced,  at  some  periods,  several 
other  countries  besides  Assyria  proper :  the  Persian  Empire  embraced, 
in  addition  to  Persia  proper,  all  the  countries  in  Asia,  from  the  Indus 
on  the  east,  to  the  Grecian  seas  on  the  west ;  and  Egypt  in  Africa  was 
annexed  to  this  empire  by  Cambyses  the  son  of  Cyrus. 

5 


2  ANCIENT       GEOGRAPHY. 

General  distribution  of  the  above  mentioned  countries,  with  their 
principal  cities  or  towns. 

Countries  North  of  the  Mediterranean. 
SPAIN,  GAUL,  ITALY,  GREECE,  MACEDON,  THRACE,  ASIA  MINOR. 

East  of  the  Mediterranean. 
ARAM,  OR  SYRIA— CANAAN,  OR  ISRAEL. 

South  of  the  Mediterranean. 

EGYPT,  LIBYA,  AFRICA  PROPER,  CARTHAGE,  NUMIDIA,  and 

MAURITANIA. 

On  the  Tigris  and  Euphrates. 

At  the  mouth  of  the  two  rivers— SHINAAR,  or  CHALDJEA. 
Between  the  two  rivers  MESOPOTAMIA.  • 

East  of  the  two  rivers  ASHUR,  or  ASSYRIA. 

At  the  head  of  the  two  rivers       ARMENIA. 

Between  the  Black  and  Caspian  Seas. 
COLCHIS,  IBERIA,  ALBANIA. 

Between  the  Caspian  Sea  and  the  Persian  Gulf. 
MEDIA,  PARTHIA,  ELAM  or  PERSIA. 

On  the  Rhine. 
HELVETIA,  RH^ETIA. 

On  the  Danube. 
ILLYRIA,  MCESIA,  NORICUM,  VINDEL1CIA,  SCYTHIA,  DACIA. 

As  the  countries  on  the  Mediterranean  Sea  were  the  scenes  of  most 
of  the  events  recorded  in  ancient  history,  it  is  important  to  know  their 
relative  situations. 

t  SPAIN 

Was  called  Hispania,  and  Hesperia,  by  the  Romans  ;  its  name  with 
the  Greeks  was  Iberia.  Its  divisions  were  LUSITANIA,  corresponding' 
to  the  modern  PORTUGAL  in  the  west,  BCETICA  in  the  south,  and  TAR- 
RACONENSIS  in  the  north  and  east. 

GAUL, 

Or,  in  the  native  Celtic,  Gael,  was  called  Gallia  by  the  Romans,  and 
Celtica  by  the  Greeks.  The  name  of  France,  which  is  now  applied 
to  the  greater  part  of  ancient  Gaul,  is  derived  from  the  Franks,  who, 
500  A.  D.,  possessed  themselves  of  that  portion  which  lay  north  of  the 
Loire,  whence  they  gradually  extended  their  empire  south.  Its  ancient 
divisions  were,  in  the  south-west,  AQVITANIA;  in  the  south-east  NAR- 
BONENSIS,  in  the  north-west  LUGDUNENSIS  ;  beyond  the  Seine,  in  the 
north,  BELGICA;  and  east  of  the  Alps,  CISALPINE" GAUL,  or  what  is  now 
the  north  of  Italy. 


ANCIENT      GEOGRAPHY. 

ITALY, 

Inhabited  by  Gauls  in  the  north,  by  native  Umbrians,  Tuscans,  Satn- 
nites,  Latins,  and  Companions,  in  the  centre,  and  in  the  south  by 
Greeks. 

GREECE. 

The  moderns  have  taken  the  name  of  this  country  from  the  Latin ; 
that  by  which  it  was  known  to  the  Greeks  themselves  was  HELLAS  for 
the  part  north,  and  PELOPENNESUS  for  that  south  of  the  Isthmus  of 
Corinth.  The  name  Hellas,  however,  denoted  rather  any  spot  where 
an  Hellenic  race  prevailed,  than  a  certain  geographical  boundary. 
Achaia  was  the  name  of  Greece  as  a  Roman  province. 

MACEDON, 

This  country  which,  from  the  time  of  Philip,  claimed  to  be  considered 
as  a  part  of  Hellas,  was  most  probably  of  Illyrian  origin;  and  its  peo- 
ple, like  the  other  Illyrians,  were  looked  upon  as  barbarians  by  the 
Greeks.  Its  boundaries  were  exceedingly  variable,  particularly  on 
the  side  towards  Thrace. 

THRACE. 

The  people  of  this  country  were  of  heterogeneous  races.  They  claim- 
ed nevertheless  to  be  the  earliest  founders  of  Greek  civilization,  and 
were  probably  allied  in  origin  as  in  manners  with  the  people  of  Asia 
Minor,  on  the  shores  of  the  Hellespont,  before  the  period  of  the  Trojan 
war. 

ASIA  MINOR. 

It  is  important  that  the  learner  be  cautioned  against  associating  with 
his  idea  of  Asia  as  a  portion  of  the  ancient  world,  the  notions  which  he 
connects  with  it  as  a  division  in  modern  geography.  To  the  ancients 
the  name  of  Asia,  at  different  periods,  conveyed  different  meanings. 
Thus,  in  the  periods  before  the  Persian  war,  it  designated  a  small 
region  only  about  the  Cayster ;  with  the  Romans  it  signified  the 
kingdom  of  Pergamus,  but  never  at  any  time  became  a  designation  of 
the  great  eastern  continent,  or  even  of  the  whole  peninsula.  Indeed, 
Persia,  or  at  least  Persian,  was  at  all  times  a  term  of  more  extensive 
signification  among  both  Greeks  and  Romans,  than  Asia  or  Asiatic. 

SYRIA, 

Which  in  its  most  limited  acceptation  included  only  the  narrow 
coast  of  the  Mediterranean  lying  between  Egypt  and  Cilicia,  and 
comprising  PHOENICIA  and  the  HOLY  LAND,  in  a  more  general  sense, 
included  frequently  all  the  country  lying  west  of  the  Tigris,  and  even 
beyond  it ;  as  the  kingdom  of  Assyria  Proper  was  not  unfrequently 
embraced  within  that  term.  Indeed  it  is  requisite  for  the  student  of 
ancient  history  to  be  constantly  on  his  guard  against  the  danger  arising 
from  the  confusion  of  the  two  names  in  the  ancient  geographers  and 
historians.  As  the  kingdom  of  the  Selencidas,  Syria  attained  its  great- 
est extent,  including  the  countries  of  Phoenicia,  Babylonia,  &c.,  and 
the  cities  of  Antioch  and  Saleucia,  besides  the  more  aneient  capitals. 


4  ANCIENT       GEOGRAPHY. 

CANAAN, 

Which  never  extended  its  i  ame  over  a  very  wide  tract  of  country, 
was  divided  into  the  kingdoms  of  JUDAH  and  ISRAEL.  The  latter  of 
these  was  terminated  with  the  Assyrian,  and  the  former,  which  con- 
tinued longer,  with  the  Babylonish  captivity.  Canaan  was  bounded 
by  Phoenicia  on  the  north,  and  by  the  Wilderness  of  Arabia  on  the 
south. 

EGYPT. 

The  narrow  strip  of  land  lying  on  either  side  of  the  Nile  was  called 
Egypt,  and  joined  the  two  continents  of  Asia  and  Africa,  being  some- 
times assigned  to  one  and  sometimes  to  the  other,  though  modern  geogra- 
phy has  determined  it  to  belong  to  the  latter.  Its  ancient  divisions  were 
LOWER  EGYPT,  or  the  DELTA  ;  MIDDLE  EGYPT,  or  the  HEPTANOMIS  and 
UPPER  EGYPT  or  the  THEBAIS.  In  the  early  history  of  Egypt  Thebes 
and  Memphis  were  the  principal  cities;  indeed,  as  strictly  Egyptian, 
they  continued  to  be  so  through  al!  antiquity.  But  for  commercial  and 
political  importance  in  the  Graco-Egyptian  period  of  the  Ptolemies, 
the  capital  was  ALEXANDRIA. 

LIBYA. 

This  was  the  name  of  the  African  coast  extending  from  the  borders  of 
Egypt  to  the  SYRTIS  MAJOR,  where  it  was  bounded  by  AFRICA  PROPER. 
Its  southern  limit  remained  always  undefined. 

AFRICA   PROPER, 

A  part  of  Africa,  from  which  the  name  was  gradually  extended  over 
the  whole  continent.  If  we.  include  Carthage,  it  reached  from  LIBYA 
to  NUMIDIA,  and  these  are  the  boundaries  assigned  to  it  by  Pliny  the 
naturalist  and  geographer. 

NUMIDIA. 

This  country,  which  lay  between  AFRICA  PROPER  and  MAURITANIA, 
is  famous  in  history  from  its  connexion  with  the  wars  of  Carthage  and 
Rome.  It  was  the  kingdom  of  Masinissa,  for  whose  sake  the  third 
Punic  war,  which  resulted  in  the  ruin  of  Carthage,  was  undertaken ; 
and  under  the  rule  of  Jupurthii,  it  carried  on  one  of  the  most  obstinate 
wars  against  the  republic  that  had  ever  occupied  the  Roman  arms. 
On  being  reduced  to  a  province,  it  received  as  its  first  governor  the 
historian  Sallust. 

MAURITANIA, 

The  most  western  portion  of  the  coast  of  Africa,  and  lying  immedi- 
ately opposite  to  Spain,  eomprisid  the  countries  which  now  con- 
stitute the  empire  of  Morocco  and  Fez.  It  contained  a  large  but  un- 
civilized population  in  the  time  of  the  Romans. 


Introduction  to  the  Geography  of  Greece. 

Observe  the  position  of  Greece  between  two  seas,  the  JSgean,  which 
separates  it  from  Asia  Minor  on  the  east,  and  the  Ionian,  which  sepa- 
rates it  from  the  island  of  Sicily,  and  the  foot  of  Italy  on  the  west.  No- 


ANCIENT       GEOGRAPHY.  5 

tice  the  narrow  passage  from  the  Ionian  sea  into  the  Adriatic  sea,  or 
Gulf  of  Venice,  formed  by  a  considerable  projection  from  Italy,  called 
the  heel  of  Italy,  and  a  small  projection  from  Epirus  in  Greece,  called 
Aero  Ceraunium.  Observe  a  chain  of  islands  distributed  along  the 
western  coast  of  Greece,  called  the  Ionian  Islands :  Corcyra,  Leuca- 
dia,  Cephallenia,  Ithaca,  and  Zacynthus.  Passing  between  Cephal- 
lenia  and  the  main  land  of  Greece,  enter  the  narrow  Gulf  of  Corinth, 
which  nearly  separates  the  Peloponnesus  from  Greece  Proper,  and 
trace  the  Gulf  to  the  isthmus  of  Corinth,  a  narrow  neck  of  land  which 
joins  the  Peloponnesus  to  Greece  Proper.  Retreating  from  the  Gulf, 
coast  round  the  Peloponnesus,  carefully  noticing  the  projections  which 
it  presents  ;  the  little  island  of  Cythera,  and  the  large  island  of  Crete, 
Melos,  and  J&gina.  in  the  Saronic  Gulf,  which  being  on  the  east  side 
of  the  isthmus  of  Corinth,  opposite  to  the  Gulf  of  Corinth,  forms  a  part 
of  the  separation  between  the  Peloponnesus  and  Greece  Proper.  Ob- 
serve a  chain  of  small  islands  ranging  with  Greece  Proper,  from  north- 
west to  south-east,  and  a  more  important  chain,  ranging  with  the  large 
island  of  Eubea,  in  the  same  direction  :  Andros,  Tenos,  Delos,  Naxos. 
Pass  through  a  gulf,  a  strait,  a  second  gulf,  and  a  second  strait,  that 
separate  Eubea  from  Greece  Proper,  and  after  noticing  in  the  way,  the 
inferior  gulfs  Maliac  and  Pelasgic,  return  into  the  ^Egean  by  the  pas- 
sage north  of  Eubea.  Coast  to  the  head  of  the  Thermaic  Gulf:  observe 
the  large  peninsula  of  Chalcis  or  Chalcidice,  projecting  three  smaller 
peninsulas;  coast  round  them  into  the  Strymonic  Gulf.  Observe  the 
Thracian  Chersonesus,  a  peninsula  on  the  west  side  of  the  Hellespont; 
pass  through  the  Hellespont,  Propontis,  Thracian  Bosphorus,  into  the 
Euxine  north-easterly  across  the  Euxine,  through  the  Cimmerian  Bos- 
phorus, into  the  Moeotis  Pains.  Return  into  the  JEgean,  notice  the 
range  of  islands  along  the  coast  of  Asia  Minor :  Lemnos,  Lesbos, 
Chios,  Samos,  Cos,  and  Rhodes ;  and  Cyprus  in  the  Levant  south  of 
Asia  Minor. 

The  people  of  the  several  states  of  Northern  Greece  may  be  charac- 
terized by  certain  epithets,  deduced  from  their  very  peculiar  and  dis- 
tinguishing characteristics,  either  of  situation,  habits,  laws,  history,  or 
political  condition  and  character. 

GREECE  PROPER. 

Thus  :  Sprightly  ATTICS — Dull  BOSOTIANS — Sacred  PHOCIANS — 
Wandenng  DORIANS — Barbarous  LOCRIANS — Wild  J^TOLIANS — 
Obscure  ACAKNAWANS. 

The  number  of  Athenian  poets,  orators,  artists,  &c.,  in  comparison 
with  those  produced  by  the  other  states  of  Greece,  sufficiently  vindi- 
cate the  correctness  of  the  epithet  of  sprightly  as  applied  to  the  Attics. 

The  opposite  reason  equally  justifies  the  application  of  dull  to  the 
Boeotians,  whose  stupidity  has  passed  into  a  proverb. 

Though  the  Delphians  claimed  to  be  a  distinct  people  from  the  Pho- 
cians,  yet  the  seat  of  their  oracle,  and  the  situation  of  Delphi  itself, 
entitled  the  Phocians  to  the  epithet  of  the  sacred. 

Crete,  Rhodes,  Doris  in  Asia  Minor,  the  Doric  states  of  Sicily  and 
Italy,  and  the  vast  revolutions  occasioned  by  the  restless  character 
of  the  Dorians,  attest  their  wandering  propensities. 


6  ANCIENT      GEOGRAPHY. 

The  little  advancement  of  the  Locrians  in  letters  and  the  arts,  may 
be  inferred  from  the  fact  of  their  having  furnished  not  a  single  name 
in  the  catalogue  of  Grecian  poets,  artists,  philosophers,  &c. 

JEtolia  early  lost  its  Hellenic  character,  so  that  it  became  impossible 
to  determine  to  what  race  or  races  its  wild  and  ferocious  tribes 
should  be  assigned. 

The  same  may  be  observed  of  the  Acarnanians. 

In  Hellas  Proper  were 

ATTICA. 

CITIES. — Athens,  with  its  ports  of  Piraeus,  Munychia,  and  P kale- 
rum;  JEleusis,  which  imparted  its  name  to  the  great  Mysteries, 
Sunium,  Marathon,  and  Acharnce. 

MEGARIS. 
CITIES. — Megaris,  Nisaa,  Pegce. 

BCEOTIA. 

CITIES. —  Thespia.  When  the  rest  of  Boeotia  submitted  to  Xerxes, 
the  Thespians  alone  refused  to  tender  earth  and  water  to  his  deputies. 
This  city  was  celebrated  as  the  birth  place  of  the  beautiful  Phryne, 
whose  statue  by  Praxiteles  vied  in  beauty  with  that  of  Venus.  She 
was  so  rich  that  she  offered  to  restore  the  walls  of  Thebes  at  her  own 
expense,  if  the  Thebans  would  set  up  this  inscription — "  Alexander 
overthrew,  Phryne  rebuilt  them. 

*  Platcea.  The  Plataeans  separated  themselves  from  the  Boeotian 
confederacy,  and  placed  themselves  under  the  protection  of  Athens. 
They  shared  the  glory  of  the  battle  of  Marathon,  and  participated  in 
the  great  battle  which  takes  its  name  from  their  city.  The  attack 
made  upon  them  by  the  Thebans  at  night  was  the  first  act  of  aggres- 
sion on  the  Peloponnesian  side  in  the  Peloponnesian  war.  Nothing 
in  the  history  of  that  war  is  so  interesting  as  the  account  of  the  siege 
of  Plataea  in  the  third  year,  with  the  gallant  defence  and  successful 
escape  of  a  part  of  the  garrison. 

Thebes,  the  capital  of  Boeotia,  is  of  more  anjcient,  if  not  of  greater 
celebrity  than  almost  any  other  city  of  Greece.  The  arrival  and  set- 
tlement of  Cadmus;  the  birth  of  Hercules;  the  story  of  CEdipus  and 
Jocasta.the  wars  of  the  Seven  and  of  the  Epigoni,all  belong  to  the  poetic 
history  of  Thebes.  In  the  more  authentic  period,  she  became  noto- 
rious for  her  adherence  to  the  cause  of  the  Persians ;  nor  was  it  till 
the  era  of  Epaminondas  and  Pelopidas  that  she  quite  recovered  her 
character  as  an  Hellenic  city.  The  battles  of  Leuctra  and  Mantiner 
placed  her  for  a  moment  at  the  very  head  of  the  affairs  of  Greece. 

Haliartus, — Coron&a, — Lebadcea,  famous  for  the  oracle  of  Trophr 
nius, — Ckaroruea,  originally  Arne,  the  scene  of  the  battle  gained  bj 
Philip  over  the  Athenians  and  Boeotians,  which  ended  the  liberties  o\ 
Greece,  B.  C.  338. 

Orchomenus,  the  second  city  of  Bosotia,  and  at  one  time  rivalling 
Thebes  in  power,  wealth,  and  importance.  Homer  represents  it  as 
vying  with  the  most  opulent  cities  in  the  world,  and  its  wealth  is  said 


ANCIENT       GEOGRAPHY.  7 

in  his  time  to  have  been  deposited  in  a  building  erected  for  that 
purpose,  which  Pausanius  describes  as  equally  worthy  of  admiration 
with  the  walls  of  Tiryns  and  the  pyramids  of  Egypt.  Tanagra. 

PHOCIS. 

CITIES. — Cirrha,  destroyed  by  order  of  the  Amphictyons,  and  its 
territory  declared  accursed. 

Crissa,  famous  for  the  Pythian  games  celebrated  in  its  plains. 

Anticyra. — Delphi,  the  seat  of  the  great  Oracle  of  Apollo,  and  of  the 
Amphictyonic  council. 

Elat&a  and  Daulis,  celebrated  in  history  as  the  scene  of  the  tragic 
story  of  Phlomele  and  Procne. 

DORIS,  OR  DORIC  TETRAPOLIS, 
From  the  four  cities  of 

Citinium,  which  was  entitled  to  send  one  delegate  to  the  Amphicty- 
onic council — Pindus — Boiurn  and  Erineus. 

LOCRIS  OF  THE  EPICNEMEDII  AND  OPUNTIANS. 

CITIES. — Alpeni — Cynus,  the  chief  maritime  city  of  the  Opuntian 
Locri. 

Opus,  one  of  the  most  ancient  cities  of  Greece,  and  celebrated  as  the 
domain  of  Deucalion  and  Pyrrha,  and  as  the  birth  place  of  Patroclus. 

LOCRIS  OF  THE  LOCRI  OZOLCE. 

CITIES — Naupactus.  This  city  is  said  to  have  taken  its  name,  which 
signifies  ship  building,  from  the  circumstance  that  the  fleet  was  there 
built  by  which  the  Dorians  were  conveyed  over  into  the  Peloponnesus. 

Amphissa,  the  most  important  town  of  the  Locri  Ozolce.  It  was 
destroyed  by  order  of  the  Amphictyons  for  having  rebuilt  the  walls  and 
cultivated  the  grounds  of  Crissa,  which  had  been  declared  accursed. 

jETOLIA. 

CITIES — Calydon,  celebrated  in  poetry  and  mythological  story  for 
the  ad  ventures  of  Meleager,  the  hero  of  the  chase  of  the  Calydonian 
boar.  In  the  historical  ages  its  importance  declined  till  Augustus  ac- 
complished its  downfall  by  removing  the  inhabitants  to  Nicopolis. 

Thermus,  the  place  at  which  the  elections  of  the  jEtolian  magistrates 
were  ratified,  and  where  their  most  magnificent  festivals  and  important 
commercial  meetings  were  held.  Though  not  frequently  alluded  to  in 
the  ancient  authors,  its  size  and  splendour  may  be  inferred  from  the  cir- 
cumstance that  when  surprised  by  the  Macedonians,  it  contained  up- 
wards of  2000  statues,  which  the  invaders  defaced  in  revenge  for  the 
excesses  committed  by  the  ^Etolians  at  Dodonaand  Dium.  At  the  same 
time,  15,000  complete  suits  of  armour  found  in  the  city  were  consum- 
ed, after  others  more  costly  had  been  selected  as  worthy  of  removal. 

ACARNANIA. 

CITIES. — Actium,  notwithstanding  its  fame  as  the  scene  of  the  great 
battle  which  gave  Octavius  Caesar  the  world,  appears  to  have  been  at 
that  time  but  the  site  of  a  temple,  with  a  small  and  obscure  harbour 
below. 

Amphilochian  Argos,  and  (Eniada. 


8  ANCIENT       GEOGRAPHY. 

PELOPONNESUS. 

In  Peloponnesus  the  following1  epithets  may  be  considered  as  de- 
signating with  equal^correctness  the  peculiarities  of  the  different  pro- 
vinces : — 

Isthmian  CORINTH,  from  its  situation. 

Fickle  ARGOLIS,  from  the  frequency  with  which  it  changed  sides  in 
the  various  contests  of  the  different  neighbouring  states.  This  cha- 
racter prevented  the  Argians  from  ever  obtaining  that  supremacy  in 
the  affairs  of  Greece  which  their  bravery  might  have  acquired.  A 
fabled  exception  must  be  made  in  the  time  of  the  Trojan  war,  when 
Agamemnon  stood  at  the  head  of  the  hundred  princes  of  the  famous 
league. 

Laconic  SPARTA.  The  opposite  of  Athens  in  every  moral  and  intel- 
lectual attribute,  Sparta  was,  most  especially  so,  in  that  conciseness  of 
speech  which  has  rendered  the  word  laconic  a  synonyme  for  brevity 
of  speech,  in  every  tongue. 

Servile  MESSEMA,  from  the  dependance  to  which  she  was  reduced 
by  the  Spartans,  who  made  He'ots  of  such  of  her  people  as  chose  to 
remain  in  their  country  after  the  unfortunate  struggle  of  Aristomenes, 
and  the  departure  of  the  rest  of  the  Messenians  to  the  places  of  their 
voluntary  exile. 

Sacred  Eus,  from  the  Olympic  Games. 

Leagued  ACHAIA.     This  league,  called  the  Achaean,  was  formed 

first  against  the  Macedonians  and  afterwards  against  the  Romans.     It 

extended  itself  at  last  so  as  to  comprise  almost  all  the  states  of  Greece. 

Earliest  SICYON,  from  its  antiquity,    which  dated,  at  least  in  fable, 

from  its  first  king  JSgialus,  B.  C.  20S9. 

Rural,  or  Pastoral  ARCADIA.  The  situation  of  this  province,  shut 
out  as  it  was  from  the  sea-coast,  and  its  rugged  and  mountainous  sur- 
face, compelled  its  inhabitants  to  adopt  the  pastoral  occupation,  as  the 
only  one  by  which  they  could  provide  themselves  with  the  necessaries 
of  life.  The  poetic  character  of  the  Greeks  converted  this  necessity 
into  a  grace ;  and  the  fabled  residence  of  Pan  and  his  rural  attend- 
ants in  the  caves  and  glens  of  Arcadia,  have  rendered  its  name  synony- 
mous with  all  that  is  beautiful  and  alluring  in  the  life  of  the  shepherd. 

The  Southern  division  of  Greece  or  the  Peloponnesus,  was  divided 
into  the  following  States  with  their  cities. 

CORINTHIA. 

CITIES.  —  Corinth,  on  the  Isthmus  at  the  entrance  of  the  Peninsula. 
Its  ports  were,  Lechoeum  on  the  Corinthian  Sinus,  the  emporium  of 
Corinthian  traffic  with  Western  Greece,  Italy  and  Sicily ;  and  Cen- 
chroR  on  the  Saronic  Gulf,  whence  the  Corinthians  traded  with  Asia 
and  the  Cyclades. 

ARGOLIS. 

CITIES. — Argot,  the  most  ancient  city  of  Greece.  Its  port  was  Nau- 
plia. 

Mycente,  the  capital  of  Argolis  during  the  reign  of  the  Pelopid 
princes.  Its  origin  was  assigned,  in  fble,  to  Perseus.  Afte  r  the  re- 


A  N  C  I  K  N  T      G  E  O  G  R  A  P  H  Y  .  9 

turn  of  the  Heraclidae,  it  declined  till  the  year  468  B.  C.,  when  the 
Argives,  having  captured  it,  levelled  its  walls  and  buildings,  and  en- 
slaved its  inhabitants. 

Tiryns,  celebrated  for  its  vast  Cyclopean  walls,  is  said  to  have  been 
founded  by  Prcetus,  brother  of  Acrisius.  Its  origin  was  undoubtedly 
of  the  earliest  Pe]asgic  period.  It  was  from  this  city,  his  patrimonial 
inheritance,  that  Hercules,  after  the  murder  of  Iphitus,  fled,  and  yielded 
up  to  his  kinsman  of  the  line  of  Sthenelus  the  dominion  of  the  Pelo- 
ponnesus. 

LA.CONIA. 

CITISS. — Sparta  and  its  port  of  Gythlum. 
MESSENIA. 

CITIES. — Pylos,  Methane,  OEpea,  which,  after  the  restoration  of  the 
Messenians,  was  called  Corone,  where  Philopremen  was  taken  prisoner 
in  the  war  occasioned  by  the  secession  of  Messene  from  the  Achsean 
league. 

Andania,  the  capital  of  Messenia  before  the  domination  of  the  He- 
raclidae. 

Messene,  and  the  mountain  fortress  of  Ira,  the  last  hold  of  the  Mes- 
senians in  their  wars  with  Sparta,  so  long  and  so  wonderfully  defended 
by  Aristomenes. 

ELIS. 

CITIES. — Elis.  This  city  always  remained  without  walls,  as  it  was 
deemed  sacred  and  under  the  immediate  protection  of  the  god  whose 
festival  was  there  solemnized.  Hence  in  early  times  those  troops 
which  were  compelled  to  traverse  this  country  were  obliged  to  deliver 
up  their  arms  on  entering  it,  and  received  them  back  upon  quitting  the 
frontier. 

Pylos  was  one  of  the  three  ancient  cities  which  disputed  the  honour 
of  being  the  capital  of  Nestor's  dominions.  The  others  were  Pylos  of 
Triphylia,  and  the  Messenian  Pylos.  Pausanias  admits  the  claim  of 
the  Elian  city. 

Pisa,  the  city  of  (Enomaus  and  Pelops,  which  long  disputed  with 
Elis  the  presidency  of  the  Olympic  Games. 

Olympifi,  celebrated  for  its  games  and  for  the  magnificent  temples  of 
Jupiter  and  Juno. 

ACHAIA. 

CITIES. — Sicyon.  Few  cities  of  Greece  could  boast  such  an  anti- 
quity, since  it  already  existed  under  the  name  ./Egialea  and  Mecone, 
long  before  the  fabled  arrival  of  Pelops  in  the  Peninsula.  It  was  the 
birth  place  of  Aratus. 

Egium,  Patrce,  JEgira,  and  Dyme. 

ARCADIA. 

CITIES — Mantinea,  celebrated  for  the  last  battle  of  Epaminondas. 
Orehomenus — Megalopolis — Phigalea — Tegcca,  next  to  Mantinea, 
the  most  ancient  city  of  Arcadia. 

The  divisions  in  the  north,  and  sometimes  rejected  as  a  part  of 
Hellas  Proper,  were: — 

2 


10  ANCIENT      GEOGRAPHY. 

EPIRUS. 

CITIES. — Ambracia,  the  modern  Arta.  This  city  is  remarkable  for 
the  gallantry  displayed  in  its  deft-nee  against  the  Romans,  as  well  as 
for  the  important  part  which  it  took  in  the  Peloponnesian  war;  having, 
according  to  Thucydides,  sustained  in  the  defeat  of  its  army  by  De- 
mosthenes the  greatest  loss  that  ever  befel  a  .Grecian  city  in  the  same 
space  of  time  during  the  whole  war.  Its  inhabitants  were  transferred 
by  Augustus  to  Nicopolis. 

Nicopolis,  built  by  Augustus  in  honour  of  the  victory  at  Actium,  and 
settled  in  a  great  measure  by  the  removal  of  the  populations  of  the 
neighbouring  cities,  and  of  some  even  as  far  as  ^Etolia. 

THESSALY. 

CITIES. — Gomphi,  Tricca.  It  is  remarkable  that  when  by  a  decree 
of  Polysperchon,  after  the  death  of  Alexander,  it  was  ordered  that  all 
exiles  throughout  the  cities  of  Greece  should  be  allowed  to  return  to 
their  homes,  the  people  of  Tricca,  and  of  the  neighbouring  Pharcadon, 
alone  were  excepted. 

Gonnus,  or  Gonni — Larissa — Phera,  one  of  the  most  ancient  and 
important  cities  of  Thessaly,  the  capital  of  Admetus,  and  the  scene  of 
the  beautiful  story  of  Alcestis.  In  the  historical  ages,  this  city  became 
unfortunately  notorious  as  affording  one  of  the  earliest  pretexts  for  the 
interference  of  Philip  in  the  affairs  of  Greece. 

Pkarsalus,  the  scene  of  the  last  contest  between  Caesar  and  Pom- 
pey,  and  of  the  final  struggle  for  Roman  liberty. 

Thebes,  denominated  Phthiotic,  to  distinguish  it  from  the  more 
famous  Thebes  of  Bceotia. 

Larissa  Cremaste,  so  called  from  the  steepness  of  its  situation,  was 
also  named  Pelasgia,  and  was  a  part  of  the  dominion  of  Achilles, 
whence  he  was  called  the  Larissosan. 

lolcos,  famous  in  the  heroic  ages  as  the  birth  place  of  Jason,  was 
situated  at  the  foot  of  Mount  Pelion,  and  near  the  river  Anaurus,  in 
which  that  hero  is  said  to  have  lost  his  sandal,  an  event  so  intimately 
connected  with  the  Argonautic  expedition.  Its  harbour  was  Pagassa, 
•whence  the  Argo  set  sail  on  her  adventurous  voyage. 

Demetrias,  which  owed  its  origin  and  its  name  to  Demetrius  Polior- 
cetes.  It  soon  became  an  important  place,  and  after  the  battle  of 
Cynocephalse  was  the  chief  town  of  the  Magnesian  republic,  and  the 
seat  of  government. 

MACEDON. 

The  Chittim  of  the  sacred  writings. 

Cities — Dium,  ^Ega,  or  Edessa,  Bertsa,  Therma,  afterwards  called 
Thessalonica,  Chalcis,  Potid&a,  Olynthus,  and  Acanthus. 

THRACE. 

Its  principle  cities  were  Amphipolis  and  Philippi,  sometimes  assigned 
to  Macedon,  Abdera,  Sestos,  Perinthus,  and  Byzantium. 


ANCIENT      GEOGRAPHY.  11 

GRECIAN   ISLANDS. 

IONIAN  ISLANDS. 

CORCYRA,  'LEUCADIA,  ITHACA,  CEPHALLENIA,  ZACYNTHUS, 
TAPHIAN  ISLANDS,  ECHINADES,  AND  CYTHERA. 

CORCYRA, 

In  Homer  called  Scheria,  the  country  of  the  Phseacians,  and 
subsequently  colonized  by  the  Dorians  of  Corinth.  This  island, 
remarkable  for  the  refractory  and  factious  disposition  of  its  population, 
had  colonized  Epidamnus,  or  Dyrrachium,  in  Illyria,  opposite  Brun- 
dusium.  This  colony  revolted  from  Corcyra  and  Corcyra  from, 
Corinth.  The  Spartans  took  part  with  Corinth,  and  the  Athenians 
with  Corcyra;  out  of  this  conflict  arose  the  Peloponnesian  war.  The 
name  of  Corcyra  in  modern  geography  is  Corfu. 

LEUCADIA, 

More  properly  called  Leucas,  with  its  promontory  of  Leucate, 
celebrated  in  antiquity  for  the  Lover's  Leap,  first  tried  by  Lesbian 
Sappho,  was  originally  joined  to  the  continent  by  an  isthmus,  which 
the  Leucadians  cut  away  during  the  Peloponnesian  war.  The  modern 
name  is  Santa  Maura. 

ITHACA, 

Six  miles  south  of  Lsucas,  is  a  small  island,  but  important  in  the  early 
fabulous  history  of  Greece,  as  the  kingdom  of  Ulysses,  and  the  scene 
of  the  greater  part  of  the  Odyssey. 

CEPHALLENIA. 

The  earliest  name  of  this  island  was  Samos,  and  its  principal  and  old- 
est city  was  called  Same.  Its  produce  was  wine,  oil,  and  olives. 

ZACYNTHUS, 

Famous  for  her  colony  of  Saguntum,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Iberus  in 
Spain,  the  destruction  of  which  by  Hannibal,  in  violation  of  the  treay 
between  Carthage  and  Rome,  excited  the  second  Punic  war. 

TAPHIAN  OR  TELEBGEAN  ISLANDS, 

A  considerable  group  between  Leucadia  and  the  coast  of  Acarnania. 
Though  very  small,  these  islands  are  remarkable  as  the  haunt  of  the 
boldest  pirates  and  hardiest  maritime  adventurers  of  the  Homeric  age. 
The  principal  one,  which  gave  its  name  to  the  group,  was  Taphos, 
afterwards  called  Taphiussa. 

ECHINADES, 

A  group  of  small  islands  frequently,  mentioned  in  the  poets,  at  the 
mouth  of  the  Achelous.  Dulichium  is  supposed  to  have  been  one  of 


12  ANCIENT      GEOGRAPHY 

them,  and  to  have  been  submerged,  according  to  a  belief  still  enter- 
tained by  the  Greek  sailors,  that  there  is  such  a  sunken  island  two 
miles  from  Cephallenia,  extending-  seven  miles.  Others  suppose  that 
Oxeae,  an  island  more  to  the  west,  is  the  Dulichium  of  the  Odyssey. 
They  have,  for  the  most  part,  become  joined  to  the  main  land  by  the 
alluvial  deposits  of  the  waters  of  the  river. 

CYTHERA, 

South  of  the  promontory  of  Malea,  the  extreme  point  of  the  Pelopon- 
nesus, a  Spartan  dependency,  and  governed  by  a  magistrate  sent  thither 
annually  from  the  city.  Some  mythologists  relate  that  Venus  at  her 
birth  emerged  from  the  sea  near  this  island,  which  was  the  first  land 
that  received  her;  the  fable  is  by  others  referred  to  Cyprus. 


ISLANDS  OF  THE  SARONIC  GULF. 

SALAMIS, 

Celebrated  equally  in  poetry  and  history,  was  an  Ionian  island,  lying 
opposite  the  Eleusinian  coast.  It  was  the  birth  place  of  the  greater 
Ajax  and  of  Solon,  but  derives  its  greatest  celebrity  from  the  great  vic- 
tory obtained  near  it  by  the  confederated  Greeks,  over  Xerxes  and  the 
Persians,  B.  C.  480. 

^EGINA 

Was  a  Dorian  colony,  having  been  occupied  by  people  of  that  race 
both  from  Crete  and  the  Peloponnesus.  The  ^Eginetse  were  distin- 
guished in  the  Epic  period  as  forming  a  part  of  the. army  of  Diomed, 
and  in  the  latter  ages  of  history  as  having  borne  off  the  first  prize  of 
valour  at  the  battle  of  Salamis.  Their  piracies  were  notorious;  and 
the  adventurous  spirit  in  which  they  conducted  them  rendered  JEgina 
the  chief  emporium  of  Greece.  They  also  are  said  to  have  been  the 
first  coiners  of  silver  money.  During  the  Pelopennesian  war,  the 
Athenians  expelled  the  whole  population,  and  replaced  them  with  some 
of  their  own  citizens.  They  were  reinstated  by  Lysander. 


CYCLADES. 

DELOS,  MYCONO3,  TENOS,  ANDROS,  CEOS,  CYTHNOS,  SERTPHUS, 
SIPHNUS,  CIMOLUS,   MELOS,   PAROS,  NAXOS,  SYROS,  GYARUs'. 

DELOS, 

Sacred  to  Apollo  and  Diana,  from  the  belief  that  it  had  been  a  floating 
island  till  arrested  by  Neptune  to  receive  Latona  in  her  wanderings, 
and  become  the  birth  place  of  the  Delian  twins.  From  its  sacred  cha- 
racter, it  was  chosen  by  the  Greeks  as  the  safest  place  of  deposit  for 
their  moneys  levied  during  the  Persian  war.  These  and  other  funds, 


ANCIENT     GEOGRAPHY.  13 

however,  were  still  placed  there  after  the  close  of  the  contest.  The 
Athenians,  who  had  the  direction  and  management  of  the  treasury, 
used  it  for  the  improvement  of  their  own  city,  the  establishment  of 
their  temples,  &c. 

CEOS, 

The  birth  place  of  the  two  greatest  lyric  poets  of  Greece,  Simonides 
and  Bacchylides  was  the  most  considerable  of  the  Cyclades.  It  was  an 
Ionian  colony,  peopled  from  Attica,  from  the  coast  of  which  it  lay  but 
five  miles  distant.  Its  inhabitants  were  the  first  who  introduced  ele- 
gance in  female  attire  in  place  of  the  ancient  simplicity.  It  was  so 
much  more  populous  than  productive,  that  every  man  on  reaching  60 
years  of  age  was  compelled  to  swallow  poison. 

CYTHNOS 
Was  a  colony  of  the  Dryopes,  a  little  south  of  Ceos. 

SERIPHTJS, 

Also  south  of  Ceos,  was  celebrated  in  mythology  as  the  scene  of  the 
most  remarkable  exploit  of  Perseus,  who  converted  the  king  Polydec- 
tes  and  his  principal  subjects  into  stone  by  means  of  the  head  of  Medusa. 
In  the  reign  of  the  emperor  Domitian,  Seriphus  was  used  as  a  place 
of  confinement  for  prisoners  of  state. 

SIPHNTJS 

Was  colonized  by  the  Tonians.  At  one  period  its  revenue  exceeded 
that  of  all  the  other  islands;  in  the  time  of  Strabo,  however,  its 
poverty  had  become  a  proverb. 

CIMOLTJS, 
One  of  the  least  important  of  the  Cyclades. 

MELOS, 

About  midway  between  Cape  Scyllseum  in  Argolis  and  the  Dyctan- 
aeum  in  Crete.  The  Athenians  reduced  this  island  during  the  Pelo- 
ponnncsian  war,  put  all  the  males  to  death,  enslaved  the  women  and 
children,  and  sent  a  colony  of  500  of  their  own  citizens  to  repeople  the 
island. 

PAROS, 

During  the  Persian  war,  the  most  flourishing  of  the  Cyclades.  It  sus- 
tained a  siege  of  twenty-eight  days  against  Miltiades,  after  the  battle  of 
Marathon;  and  his  ill  success  in  this  enterprize,  or  his  injustice  in  at- 
tempting it,  was  the  cause  of  his  ruin.  The  Parian  marble  was  famous 
throughout  Greece,  but  the  greatest  boast  of  the  island  was  its  having 
been  the  birth  place  of  the  poet  Archilochus. 

NAXOS, 

The  most  considerable  of  the  Cyclades,  was  twice  as  large  as  Paros. 
The  failure  of  the  expedition  undertaken  by  the  Persians  against  this 
island  led  to  the  revolt  of  the  Ionian  states,  and  ultimately  to  the  Per- 
sian invasion  of  Greece.  It  had  received  an  Ionian  colony  from 


14  ANCIENT     GEOGRAPHY. 

Athens,  though  at  first  peopled  by  Carians.  Fable  named  it  as  the 
birth  place  of  Bacchus,  probably  from  the  success  with  which  the  vine 
was  there  cultivated. 

TENOS, 
Called  also  HYDRUSSA,  from  the  abundance  of  its  springs. 

ANDROS. 

The  Andrians  having  been  compelled  to  join  the  armament  of  Xerxes, 
were  called  upon  after  the  battle  of  Salamis  to  make  atonement  by  pay- 
ment of  a  large  sum  of  money.  This  demand  they  declared  them- 
selves unable  to  comply  with,  as  they  were  beset  with  two  deities, 
Poverty  and  Want,  who  never  quitted  the  island,  and  who  opposed  the 
payment  of  the  required  sum. 

GYARUS, 

Little  more  than  a  barren  rock.  It  became,  in  the  days  of  the  empire, 
a  place  of  banishment  for  criminals. 


SPORADES. 

The  Greeks  comprised  under  this  name  the  numerous  islands  which 
lay  scattered  around  the  Cyclades,  and  those  which  lay  towards  Crete, 
and  the  coast  of  Asia  Minor.  The  most  celebrated  was 

THERA. 

It  was  said  in  fable  to  have  been  formed  from  a  clod  of  earth  thrown 
from  ship  Argo,  and  was  called  at  first  CALLISTE. 

AMORGOS. 

The  birth  place  of  Simonides,  the  Iambic  poet. 
CARPATHUS, 

Which  gave  its  name  to  the  Carpathian  sea.  It  lay  between  Crete 
and  Rhodes,  being  distant  from  the  latter  50  miles. 

CRETE. 

This  was,  perhaps,  of  all  the  islands  of  Greece,  the  most  famous.  In 
poetry  and  mythology  it  is  associated  with  the  names  of  the  father  of 
the  gods  who  was  fabled  to  have  been  born  there ;  Minos  and  the 
Minotour;  Ariadne,  Theseus  and  the  labyrinth;  Daedalus  and  Icarus. 
Its  principal  cities  were  Cydonia — Gnossus,  the  royal  city  of  Minos, 
and  the  scene  of  the  principal  fables  alluded  to  above.  Gortys,  or  Gor- 
tynia — Prasus,  near  which  was  the  celebrated  Mount  Dicte,  the  birth 
place  of  Jupiter,  with  the  Dictaean  cave,  where  he  was  nursed  in  his 
infancy,  and  fed  miraculously  on  bees; — Lyctus,  one  of  the  most 
considerable  places  in  the  island. 

EUBCEA. 

The  earliest  inhabitants  of  this  island  were  called  Abantes,  by  which 
name  alone  they  are  mentioned  in  Homer.  Before  the  time  of  the 


ANCIENT     GEOGRAPHY.  15 

Peloponnesian  war,  the  whole  island  was  reduced  to  acknowledge  the 
supremacy  of  Athens.  Though  frequently  in  revolt  to  recover  their 
independence,  the  Euboeans  never  succeeded  in  casting  off  the  Athenian 
yoke  till  the  twenty-first  year  of  the  Peloponnesian  war,  when,  by  the 
assistance  of  the  Spartans  under  Hegesandridas,  they  gained  an  impor- 
tant victory  of  the  Athenian  fleet,  and  subsequently  recovered  their 
liberty.  The  principal  cities  of  this  island  were  Histicea,  afterwards 
Onus,  Chalcis,  and  Eretria. 


EUBCEAN   ISLANDS. 

SCYROS. 

The  first  inhabitants  of  this  island  were  Dolopians,  who  were  after- 
wards expelled  by  the  Athenians.  It  was  here  that  Theseus  was  said 
to  have  died,  or  to  have  been  killed  by  falling  or  being  thrown  from  a 
precipice  :  and  here  too  Achilles  was  concealed  by  his  mother  to  pre- 
vent the  fulfilment  of  the  prediction  of  his  early  death,  in  case  he  should 
accompany  the  Greeks  to  Troy. 

SCIATHUS,  SCOPELOS  and  HALONNESUS. 


THRACIAN   ISLANDS. 

THASOS. 

This  island  derived  immense  wealth  from  its  silver  mines,  the  reve- 
nues amounting  at  times  to  three  hundred  talents.  The  inhabitants 
retained  the  old  Cabiric  worship. 

SAMOTHRACE. 

The  chief  celebrity  of  this  island  arises  from  the  mysteries  of  the 
Cybele  and  her  Corybantes,  which  were  said  to  have  originated  here. 
These  were  connected  with  the  worship  of  the  Cabiric,  which  also 
prevailed,  if  it  did  not  originate,  among  the  Samothracians. 

LEMNOS. 

This  island  owes  its  note  rather  to  poetry  and  fable  than  to  its  histori- 
cal importance.  Vulcan  was  called  the  Lemnian  God  from  the  cir- 
cumstance of  his  having  been  received  in  his  fall  from  heaven  by  the 
Sintians.  The  story  of  Jason,  Hypsipyle  and  the  Lemnian  women, 
connected  with  the  legend  of  the  Argonautic  expedition,  gives  still 
greater  poetical  celebrity  to  the  island. 

IMBROS, 

Like  Lemnos  was  a  seat  of  the  early  Pelasgi,  and  remarkable  for  the 
Cabiric  rites  performed  there  with  peculiar  solemnity. 


16  ANCIENT    GEOGRAPHY. 


ASIATIC  GREEK  ISLANDS. 

TENEDOS, 

A  small  but  important  island  at  the  mouth  of  the  Hellespont.  Its  con- 
nexion with  the  events  of  the  Trojan  war  gives  it  its  greatest  celebrity, 
although  it  is  not  without  its  historical  associations  in  the  periods  of 
more  authentic  history. 

LESBOS. 

The  chief  city  of  this  island  was  the  capital  of  all  the  Ionic  cities  of 
Asia.  It  was  remarkable  for  the  number  of  illustrious  names  associ- 
ated with  it.  Alcaeus,  Sappho,  Phaon,  and  Pittacus,  one  of  the  seven 
sages  of  Greece,  were  natives  of  Lesbos.  The  dominant  people  were 
Dorians. 

CHIOS, 

The  modern  Scio,  celebrated  for  its  capacious  harbour,  in  which  a 
hundred  vessels  could  ride  at  anchor.  The  wine  of  Chios  was  in 
high  repute.  Its  population  was  Ionian. 

SAMOS, 

Lying  off  the  Ionian  coast.  It  was  the  fabled  birth  place  of  Juno, 
whose  worship  was  celebrated  by  the  Samians  with  peculiar  solem- 
nity. Her  temple  in  the  city  of  Samos  was  considered  by  Herodotus 
as  one  of  the  finest  works  of  Grecian  architecture,  and  by  him  ranked 
with  that  of  Diana  of  Ephesus.  It  is  here  that  the  first  statues  were 
cast  in  bronze ;  but  the  greatest  boast  of  Samos  was  its  having  been 
the  birth  place  of  Pythagoras,  who  was  expelled  thence  by  the  tyrant 
Polycrates. 

ICARIA. 

This  was  an  island  of  some  extent,  lying  west  of  Samos,  and  the  fabu- 
lous origin  of  its  name  is  referred  to  the  story  of  Daedalus  and  Icarus, 
from  which  "that  of  the  circumjacent  sea  was  also  derived.  The  Sa- 
mians used  this  island  for  pasturing  their  cattle. 

PATMOS, 

A  small  island  west  of  Icaria,  which  owes  all  its  celebrity  to  the  cir- 
cumstance of  its  having  been  the  place  of  banishment  of  St.  John,  who 
wrote  there  his  apocalypse. 

CALYDN.E  ISLANDS, 

A  small  group  of  the  coast  of  Caria,  celebrated  for  their  honey.  The 
principal  of  these  was  CALYMNA.  They  are  all  spoken  of  by  Herodo- 
tus as  subject  to  Artimisia. 

COS, 

A  Doric  island,  called  also,  more  anciently,  MF.ROPIS.  Hippo- 
crates and  Apelles  were  natives  of  this  island. "  Its  productions  were 
the  whetstone,  which  takes  its  name  in  many  languages  from  that  of 
the  island,  and  a  peculiar  kind  of  transparent  silk,  much  worn  at  Rome, 
and  severely  inveighed  against  by  Juvenal. 


ANCIENT     GEOGRAPHY.  17 

RHODES, 

Famed  for  its  colossus,  which  was  considered  one  of  the  seven  wonders 
of  the  world.  The  Rhodians  were  a  Doric  people,  but  took  little  in- 
terest in  the  affairs  of  their  brother  Greeks ;  and  in  the  wars  of  their 
countrymen  with  the  Romans  they  espoused  the  cause  of  the  latter. 
The  Rhodians  worshipped  as  their  tutelary  deity  the  sun,  in  whose 
honour  the  colossus  was  erected. 

CYPRUS. 

This  large  island  was  south  of  Cilicia  and  west  of  Syria.  From 
PAPHOS,  the  city  of  Venus,  it  was  sometimes  called  PAPHIA,  and  from 
Salamis,  the  most  important  place  in  the  island,  said  to  have  been 
founded  by  Teucer,  and  from  him  to  have  received  the  name  of  Sa- 
lamis, in  honour  of  his  native  island,  it  was  also  called  Salaminia. 
The  character  of  the  people  is  said  to  have  been  conformable  to  that  of 
their  peculiar  worship;  and  the  term  Cyprian  has  become  a  synonyme 
of  dissoluteness  and  effeminacy.  It  was  here  that  Cymon  died  during 
the  seige  of  Citium,  as  he  was  on  his  Egyptian  expedition.  In  the  for- 
tunes of  Egypt  those  of  Cyprus  were  for  the  most  part  involved,  as 
she  may  be  considered  a  dependency  of  that  country,  until,  as  such,  she 
fell  under  the  Persian  dominion. 


ISLANDS  OF  THE  MEDITERRANEAN. 

BALEARES, 

Consisting  of  Majorca  and  Minorca,  to  which  Ivica  was  sometimes 
added.  They  lay  off  the  coast  of  Spain,  and  received  the  name  of  Bal- 
eares  from  a  Greek  word  that  signifies  to  cast,  because  the  inhabitants 
were  most  expert  slingers,  and  used  the  sling  as  their  principal  wea- 
pon. Their  modern  names  are  derived  from  the  adjective  Major  and 
Minor,  which  distinguished  the  greater  from  the  lesser  Balearis. 

CORSICA,  OR  CYRNUS, 

As  it  was  called  by  the  Greeks,  was  a  rude  and  uncultivated  island 
during  all  the  period  of  its  occupation  by  the  Romans,  and  was  used 
by  them  occasionally  as  a  place  of  banishment  for  state  criminals.  It 
was  here  that  Seneca  lived  in  exile  during  the  reign  of  the  emperor 
Claudius. 

SARDINIA, 

Called  also  by  the  Greeks  Ichnusa,  from  the  shape  of  its  coast.  It 
was  equally  remarkable  for  the  rude  independence  of  its  inhabitants, 
the  ruggedness  of  its  surface,  and  the  fertility  of  its  soil.  This  island 
produced  a  singular  herb,  which,  on  being  eaten,  occasioned  spasms  of 
the  face,  while  the  patient  died  as  if  with  a  laugh  upon  his  lips;  hence 
the  expression  sardonic  laughter.  Iberians  were  perhaps  the  first 
occupants  of  Sardinia, »bui  successive  colonies  and  partial  conquests 
gave  it  afterwards  to  the  Carthaginians,  the  Greeks,  and  the  Romans. 

3 


18  ANCIENT      GEOGRAPHY. 

Yet  the  rugged  mountaineers  of  the  interior  may  be  said  never  to 
have  been  fully  subdued,  even  by  the  conquerors  of  the  world. 

ILVA, 
In  modern  geography  Elba. 

JEN  ARl  A, 
The  modef  n  Ischia. 

CAPREJE, 

Off  the  coast  of  Campania,  famous  as  the  scene  of  the  dissolute  enjoy- 
ments of  Tiberius,  who  erected  there  twelve  costly  villas,  designated 
by  the  names  of  the  twelve  greater  gods.  It  is  at  present  remarkable 
for  the  quantities  of  quails  caught  in  it,  the  number  varying  per  an- 
num from  12  to  60,000. 

LIPARA. 

The  largest  of  the  ten  .flSolian  islands.  These  islands,  which  lay  off 
the  Bruttian  coast,  and  north  of  Sicily,  derived  their  name  of  ^Eolian 
from  having  been  the  residence  of  the  fabled  jEolus,  king  of  the  winds. 
They  were  also  called  Vulcanite,  from  their  volcanic  character.  One 
only,  however,  still  retains  an  active  volcano;  this  is  Stromboli,  the  an- 
cient Strongyle. 

SICILY. 

This  greatest  island  of  the  Mediterranean  contained  a  number  of  cities 
which  figured  largely  in  ancient  history.  It  is  separated  from  the 
coast  of  Italy  by  the  Straits  of  Messina,  which  are  in  the  narrowest  part 
but  two  miles  wide.  Its  original  inhabitants  were  the  Sicels,  to  whom 
succeeded  the  Sicanians.  Very  little  remained,  however,  of  their  his- 
tory, even  in  the  time  of  the  Greeks  and  Romans;  the  principal  cities 
having  been  founded  afterwards  by  Phoenicians,  Greeks,  Carthagin- 
ians, and  Romans.  The  fertility  of  this  island  caused  it  to  be  looked 
upon  as  the  granary  of  Rome.  In  Homer  and  the  ante-historic  tradi- 
tions, the  Cyclopes  and  Laestrigons  were  the  earliest  inhabitants  of  this 
island.  The  volcano  of  ^Etna  most  probably  furnished  the  basis  of 
the  greater  part  of  the  fables  and  wonders  of  Sicily  in  the  early  poetry 
of  Greece.  Sicily  was  sometimes  called  Trinakia  and  Trinacria,  from 
the  three  promontories  at  its  points — Pelorum,  Lilyboeum,  and  Pachy- 
num.  Among  the  many  illustrious  cities  of  this  island,  we  may  parti- 
cularize Agrigentum  and  Syracuse. 

MELITA, 
Or  Malta,  an  important  island  about  60  miles  south-east  of  Sicily. 


ANCIENT     GEOGRAPHY.  19 


ASIA   MINOR, 

Included  all  that  was  termed  Asia  by  the  Romans  and  apostles.  It 
was  divided  into  Mysia,  Lydia,  Caria  in  the  west ;  settled  and  civilized 
by  colonies  from  ^Eolia,  Ionia  and  Doris ;  Lycia,  Pamphylia  and 
Cilicia  in  the  south;  Pontus,  Paphlagonia  and  Bithynia  in  the  north; 
Cappadocia,  Phrygia  and  Pisidia  in  the  centre. 

The  above  countries  were  settled  by  Japhet  and  his  descendants. 

Divisions  with  principal  Cities. 

Cappadocia,  including-  Pontus — Trapezus,  Amisus. 

Galatia,  or  Gallogra&cia,  including  Paphlagonia,  Sinope,  Ancyra. 

Bithynia — Heraclea,  Nicomedia,  Nicaea,  of  Nice,  Prusa. 

Mysia — Abydos,  Ilyium,  or  Troy,  Pergamus. 

Lydia — Smyrna,  Clazomerie,  Sardis,  Ephesus,  Thyatfra.! 

Caria — Miletus,  Halicarnassus. 

Lycia — Myra. 

Pisidia,  including  Pamphylia,  Aspendus. 

Cilicia — Tarsus,  Issus. 

PONTUS. 

CITIES. —  Trapezus,  now  Trebisond,  founded  by  a  colony  from 
Sinope.  In  the  ages  of  the  lower  empire  it  became  the  capital  of  the 
dynasty  founded  by  Alexis  Comnenes,  and  remained  independent  of 
the  Greek  empire  ever  after.  It  was  the  most  eastern  city  upon  the 
coast. 

Cerasus,  some  distance  west  of  Trapezus.  Cherries  were  first  in- 
troduced into  Europe  from  this  place,  whence  they  took  their  name, 
680  B.  C. 

Amisus,  the  largest  city  of  Pontus,  was  situated  upon  the  gulf 
which  takes  its  name  from  it,  at  the  mouth  of  the  Halys. 

Amasea — Comana.  Amasea,  the  birth  place  of  Mithridates  the 
Great,  and  Strabo  the  geographer. 

CAPPADOCIA. 

CITIES. — Comana,  famous  for  the  great  temple  of  Bellona,  served  by 
upwards  of  6000  ministers. 

Mazaca,  afterwards  called  Caesarea  ad  Argaeum,  _ihe  capital  of 
Cappadocia. 

Tyana,  the  birth  place  of  Apollonius,  the  famous  impostor  and 
Pythagorean,  whose  miracles,  by  the  opponents  of  Christianity,  have 
been  compared  with  those  of  the  Saviour. 

PAPHLAGONIA. 

CITIES. — Sinope.  A  colony  from  Miletus;  the,  most  important 
place,  in  a  commercial  point  of  view,  on  the  shores  of  the  Euxine. 
'The  cynic  Diogenes  was  born  in  this  city.  Amastris. 

GALATIA. 
•CITIES. — Ancyra — Pessinus,  a  city  of  extremely  remote  origin,  and 

i  ' 


20  ANCIENT      GEOGRAPHY. 

famous  for  the  worship  of  Cybles,  which  was  celebrated  there  with 
peculiar  rites. 

BITHYNIA. 

CITIES. — Heracha,  founded  by  Doric  colonists  from  Megara. 

Prusa — Chalcedon.  This  city  was  founded  a  short  time  before 
Byzantium,  and  was  called  by  Megabyzns,  a  Persian  satrap,  the  city  of 
the  blind,  because  its  inhabitants,  in  the  selection  of  the  site,  chose  this 
in  preference  to  the  more  advantageous  situation  upon  the  opposite 
coaet,  where  Byzantium  was  afterwards  founded. 

Nicomedia,  at  the  head  of  the  gulf  which  takes  its  name  from  the 
early  town  of  Astacus.  As  Nicomedia  was  on  the  direct  route  from 
Constantinople  to  the  more  eastern  parts  of  the  empire,  it  became  fre- 
quently the  residence  of  those  emperors  who  conducted  in  person  the 
military  operations  in  the  East.  It  was  said  at  one  time  to  be  the  fifth 
city  in  the  world  for  magnitude,  and  the  first  for  beauty. 

Nicaa,  at  one  time  the  capital  of  Bythnia,  having  for  a  period 
superseded  Nicomedia.  It  was  here  that  the  first  part  of  the  creed, 
thence  called  the  Nicene,  was  adopted,  in  the  time  of  Constantine. 

MYSIA. 

CITIBS. — Cyzicus,  built  on  a  peninsula,  or,  according  to  Strabo  and 
Pliny,  on  an  island  in  the  Propontis,  on  the  northern  shore  of  Mysia. 
It  flourished  greatly  through  commerce;  so  much  so,  that  Florus  call- 
ed it  the  Rome  of  Asia. 

Adrastia — Lampsacus — Ilium  or  Troy. 

Adramyttium — Pergamus,  the  capital  of  a  kingdom  of  the  same 
name,  founded  B.  C.  282.  Its  last  king,  Attalus  Philomator,  bequeath- 
ed it  to  the  Roman  people,  B.  C.  143.  In  this  place  parchment  was 
first  invented,  and  hence  its  name. 

Charta — Pergamena.  Its  famous  library,  containing  upwards  of 
200,000  volumes,  was  transferred  by  Cleopatra  to  Egypt.  Apollodo- 
rus  the  mythologist,  and  Galen,  were  natives  of  this  place. 

LYDIA. 

CITIES. — Cuma,  a  city  proverbial  for  the  remarkable  stupidity  of  its 
inhabitants.  Ephorus  and  Hesiod,  however,  were  Cumseans. 

Phocaia,  one  of  the  most  important  commercial  places  of  Asia 
Minor,  before  the  conquest  of  Lydia  by  Cyrus.  When  pressed  by 
Harpagus,  one  of  the  generals  of  the  conqueror,  the  Phocaeans  put 
their  wives  and  children  on  board  of  their  galleys,  and  abandoned 
their  city  to  the  Persians.  A  part  of  them,  however,  returned,  but  the 
remainder  continued  their  voyage,  until  after  various  vicissitudes,  they 
finally  established  themselves  on  the  coast  of  Gaul,  where  they  founded 
the  city  of  Massilia,  now  Marseilles. 

Clazomene.  The  first  city  of  this  name  stood  on  the  main  land 
west  of  Smyrna ;  but  on  the  fall  of  Croesus,  terrified  at  the  progress  of 
the  Persian  arms,  the  inhabitants,  who  were  lonians,  removed  to  a 
neighbouring  island,  where  they  rebuilt  their  city.  In  the  time  of 
Alexander  it  was  joined  to  the  main  land  by  a  causeway,  a  part  of 
which  still  remains.  It  was  the  birth  place  of  Anaxagorae. 


ANCIENT     GEOGRAPHY.  21 

Smyrna,  one  of  the  few  cities  of  Asia  Minor  which  retains  in  modern 
times  some  degree  of  its  ancient  importance. 

Tcos,  the  birth  place  of  Anacreon.  The  people  of  this  island  found- 
ed the  city  of  Abdera  in  Thrace,  under  circumstances  similar  to  those 
by  which  the  Phocaens  were  driven  from  their  country. 

Lebr.dus,  one  of  the  twelve  cities  of  Ionia. 

Thyatira — Sardis,  the  city  of  Croesus  and  capital  of  Lydia. 

CARIA. 

CITIES. — Myndus,  on  the  gulf  of  lassus.  The  punishment  of  a 
Myndian  captain  by  the  Admiral  of  the  Persian  fleet  destined  against 
Naxos,  produced  the  failure  of  that  expedition,  the  revolt  of  the  lonians, 
and  ultimately  the  invasion  of  Greece  by  the  arms  of  Darius. 

Halicarnassus,  the  city  of  Artemisia,  and  the  birth  place  of  Herodo- 
tus and  Dionysius  the  historians.  It  was  originally  one  of  the  Doric 
confederacy  of  six  states,  called  the  Hexapolis.  On  the  exclusion  of 
Halicarnassus,  this  confederacy  was  called  the  Pentapolis.  A  second 
Artemisia  caused  the  erection  of  the  celebrated  mausoleum  in  memory 
of  her  husband  Mausolus.  The  city  was  razed  to  the  earth  by  Alex- 
ander in  consequence  of  its  resolute  resistance  to  his  arms. 

Cnidus,  the  capital  of  the  Dorians  of  Asia.  The  whole  Triopian 
peninsula  belonged  to  the  Cnidians;  and  when  they  were  threatened 
by  the  Persians  under  Harpagus,  they  consulted  the  oracle  upon  the 
expedient  of  separating  themselves  from  the  main  land  by  cutting 
through  the  isthmus.  The  Pythian  answered,  that  "if  Jupiter  had 
wished  it  to  be  an  island,  he  would  have  made  it  so."  The  city  then 
surrendered  to  the  Persians.  The  great  victory  of  Conon  over  the 
Peloponnesian  fleet,  which  transferred  the  empire  of  the  sea  again  to 
the  Athenians,  was  fought  off  the  coast  of  Cnidus. 

Mylasa,  celebrated  for  the  great  number  of  its  temples  in  proportion 
to  its  population.  It  is  said  that  the  musician  Stratonicus,  placing 
himself  in  the  forum,  and  observing  this  disproportion,  began  his  reci- 
tation and  performance  by  exclaiming  Hear,  oh  ye  temples! 

Alabanda.  This  town  was  so  situated  among  hills  as  to  suggest 
the  idea  of  an  ass  with  a  pack  saddle;  whence  a  certain  orator,  allud- 
ing to  the  number  of  scorpions  which  abounded  in  its  vicinity,  called  it 
an  ass  laden  with  scorpions.  It  was  noted  for  the  voluptuousness  of 
its  inhabitants,  and  the  number  of  its  singing  women. 

PHRYGIA  AND  LYCAONIA. 

CITIES. — Ipsus,  celebrated  for  the  great  battle  fought  in  its  plains  by 
the  forces  of  Cassander,  Lysimachus,  Ptolemy,  and  Seleucus,  against 
Antigonus  and  his  son  Demetrius. 

Laodicea — Cnlosscc — Cel&nce,  a  very  ancient  city,  famous  in  fable 
for  the  story  of  Marsyas  and  the  legend  of  Midas. 

Apamea,  built  by  Antiochus  Soter,  who  removed  thither  the  inhabi- 
tants of  Celsenae.  In  the  time  of  Strabo,  it  was  the  largest  town  of 
Phrygia,  yielding  in  commercial  importance  to  Ephesus  alone,  of  all 
the  cities  of  peninsular  Asia. 

Iconium,  the  principal  city  of  Lycaonia,  more  celebrated  in  the  mid- 


22  ANCIENT     GEOGRAPHY. 

die  ages  than  in  antiquity.     It  became  the  capital  of  a  Turkish  empire, 
whose  princes  were  called  sultans  of  Iconium. 

ISAURIA, 

Frequently  considered  as  a  part  of  Lycaonia ;  its  principal  city  bore 
the  name  of  Isaura. 

LYCIA. 

CITIES. —  Telmissus,  famous  for  the  skill  of  its  augurs. 

Pinara — Xanthus.  The  inhabitants  of  this  place  were  illustrious 
for  their  dauntless  courage,  having  twice  sacrificed  themselves  to  avoid 
falling  into  the  hands  of  the  enemy.  The  first  time  was  on  the  inva- 
sion of  Lycia  by  Harpagus,  when  they  buried  themselves  under  the 
ruins  of  their  walls  and  temples ;  the  second,  when  their  town  was 
invested  by  Brutus,  and  being  unable  to  break  his  lines,  they  cast 
themselves  with  their  wives  and  children  into  the  flames. 

Patara — Olympus,  one  of  the  six  chief  communities  of  Lycia.  It 
was  in  the  neighbourhood  of  the  celebrated  Solymsean  mountains,  of 
which  the  Chimarea  was  one. 

Phaselis,  famous  for  its  manufacture  of  rose  perfume. 

PAMPHYLIA. 
CITIES. — Attalia — Aspendus,  a  noted  haunt  of  the  Asiatic  pirates. 

PISIDIA. 

CITIES. —  Termessus — Selge.  The  inhabitants  of  this  place  were 
remarkable  for  their  love  of  liberty,  and  for  their  success  in  defending 
it  against  all  the  powers  which  successively  held  dominion  in  the 
peninsula. 

CILICIA. 

CITIES. — Coracesium — Anchiale,  which  is  said  to  have  owed  its 
foundation  to  the  Assyrian  Sardanapalus,  who  commemorated  the  event 
in  the  famous  inscription  to  the  following  effect :  "  Sardanapalus,  the  son 
of  Anacyndarayes,  erected  in  one  day  the  cities  of  Anchiale  and  Tar- 
sus: stranger,  eat,  drink  and  be  merry!  the  rest  is  not  worth  the  snap 
of  a  finger." 

Tarsus,  the  metropolis  of  Cilicia,  the  birth  place  of  the  apostle  Paul, 
and  one  of  the  most  important  towns  of  Asia  Minor. 

Issus,  at  the  head  of  the  gulf  which  bears  its  name.  It  was  here  that 
Alexander  gained  his  second  great  victory  over  Darius  and  the  Per- 
sians. 


CANAAN. 

This  country  was  called  in  ancient  times  the  Land  of  Canaan,  from 
Canaan  the  son  of  Ham;  the  Land  of  Promise,  or  Promised  Land, 
from  its  being  promised  to  the  descendants  of  Abraham ;  the  Land  of 
Itrael,  from  the  Israelites ;  Judah  and  Israel,  after  the  kingdoms  were 
divided.  Since  the  Christian  era  it  is  commonly  designated  by  the 


ANCIENT     GEOGRAPHY.  23 

name  of  Judea,  from  Judah,  the  principal  of  the  twelve  tribes ;  Pales- 
tine, from  the  Philistines,  who  inhabited  the  southwest  part  of  it;  and 
the  Holy  Land,  especially  when  mentioned  in  connection  with  the 
crusades. 

Previous  to  the  removal  of  Abraham  into  this  country,  it  was  pos- 
sessed by  the  Canaanites,  a  people  notorious  for  their  idolatry  and  wick- 
edness. After  its  conquest  by  the  Israelites,  it  was  divided  among  the 
twelve  tribes  by  lot.  Moses  conquered  the  country  east  of  the  Jordan, 
and  apportioned  it  to  Reuben,  Gad,  and  the  half  tribe  of  Manasseh. 
Joshua  conquered  the  country  west  of  the  Jordan,  and  it  was  appor- 
tioned among  the  remaining  tribes. 

Benjamin,  Judah,  Simeon,  Dan,  in  the  south,  and  hence  sometimes 
called  South  Israel. 

Ephraim,  Manasseh,  half  tribe  in  the  centre,  Issachar,  Zebulon, 
Naphtali,  Asher,  in  the  north.  These  constituted  North  Israel. 

At  the  birth  of  our  Saviour,  Palestine  was  divided  into  four  parts, 
Judea,  south ;  Samaria,  centre ;  Galilee,  north ;  Perea,  east. 

COUNTRIES  MENTIONED  IN  THE  PENTATEUCH. 

Canaan,  Wilderness.  Egypt. 
Midian,  Amalek,  Edom,  south  of  Canaan. 
Midian  2nd,  Moab,  Amman,  east  of  Canaan. 
Philistia  and  Phoenicia,  on  the  west  coast. 

CITIES  OF  JUDEA. 

BENJAMIN.— Bethel,  Ai,  Jericho,  Gilgal,  Gibeah,  Gibeon,  Ra- 
mah,  Bethany,  Jerusalem,  the  capital  on  the  boundary  line  between 
Benjamin  and  Judea. 

JUDAH. — Hebron,  Bethlehem,  Adullam,  Engedi,  Tekoah. 

SIMEON. — Beersheba,  Gaza,  Ascalon. 

DKN.—Gath,  Ashdod,  Ekron. 

EPHRAIM. — Samaria,  Shechem,  Shiloh,  Timnath-serah,  Joppa. 

MANASSEH. —  Tirzah,  Jez-re-el,  Megiddo,  Cesarea. 

ISSACHAR.— Shunem,  Nain. 

ZEBULON. — Gath-he.pha,  Nazareth,  Cana,  Tiberias. 

NAPHTALI. — Dan,  Kadesh,  Hazor,  Bethsaida,  Capernaum. 

ASHER. — Ace,  Acre,  or  Ptolomais,  Tyre,  Sidon,  Sarepta. 

REUBEN.— Bezer,  Heshbon,  Bethabara. 

GAD. — Ramoth-Gilead,  Mahanaim,  Succoth. 

MANASSEH.— Edrei,  Gadara,  Gergesi,  Golan,  Geshuri. 

Five  cities  of  the  Plain. — Sodom,  Gomorrah,  Admah,  Zeboim  and 
Zoar. 

Five  cities  of  the  Philistines. — Gaza,  Ascalon,  Gath,  Askdod  and 
Ekron. 

Six  cities  of  Refuge. — Three  west  of  Jordan,  Hebron,  Shechem, 
Kedesh. 

Three  east,  Bezer,  Ramoth-Gilead,  Golan. 

RIVERS  OF  JUDEA. 
Arnon,  Jobbok,  Cedron,  or  Kedron,  Besor,  Sorek,  Kishon,  Belus. 


24  ANCIENT     GEOGRAPHY. 

MOUNTAINS. 

West  of  the  Jordan. — Lebanon,  Anti  Lebanon,  Heman,  Carmel 
Tabor,  Mountains  of  Ephraim,  Israel,  Ebal  and  Gilboa 

East  of  the  Jordan. — Bashan,  Gilead,  Abarim,  Pisgah,  Nebo, 

South  of  Palestine. — Seir  and  Hor. 

Four  hills  on  which  Jerusalem  was  built. — Zion,  Moriah,  Acra,  and 
Bezeta. 

Four  near  the  city. — Mount  of  Olives,  or  Olivet,  Calvary,  Gihon 
and  Mountain  of  Offence. 

SEAS,  OR  LAKES. 

Dead  Sea,  or  Lake  Asphaltites,  Sea  of  Tiberias,  or  Galilee,  or 
Lake  of  Gennesareth. 


OUTLINE   OF   HISTORY, 

FROM    THE 

CREATION  OF  THE  WORLD  TO    A.M.  3500. 


Outline  of  Hebrew  History. 

PATRIARCHS. 

ADAM,  LAMECH.  REU. 

SETH, 

ENDS.  NOAH.  SERUG, 

—  —   .  NAHOR, 
CAINAN,  SHEM,  TERAH. 
MAHALALEEL,  ARPHAXAD, 

JARED.  SELAH.  ABRAHAM, 

—  —  ISAAC,  and 
ENOCH,  EBER,  JACOB. 
METHDSALEH,  PELEG, 

THE  creation  was  completed  in  six  days ;   and  the  fall  of  man,  and 
his  expulsion  from  the  garden  of  Eden,  probably  happened  soon  after 
Cain  killed  Abel,  in  the  year  of  the  world  129.    The  birth 
129     Of  geth  the  next   year,  supplied,   in   the  patriarchal  line, 
DeAbhei?f   the  place  of  Abel,  who  was  dead,  and  of  Cain,  who  was  re- 
jected. 

Cain,  accursed  of  God  for  his  crime,  separated  from  his  brother  and 
went  into  the  land  of  Nod,  east  of  the  Euphrates,  where  he  built  several 
cities,  and  became  the  father  of  an  impious  race  of  mortals,  called  the 
sons  of  men,  little  noticed  in  the  Scriptures. 

Enoch,  Irad,  Mehujael,  Methusael,  and  Lamech,  lineally  descended 
from  Cain — Lamech  had  three  sons :  Jabal,  the  father  of  herdsmen  ; 
Jubal,  inventor  of  the  harp  and  organ ;  Tubalcain,  the  first  artificer  in 
brass  and  iron. 

THE  DISPERSION  AT  THE  BIRTH  OF  PELEG. 

The  most  received  opinion  on  this  subject  is,  that  at  the  birth  of 
Peleg,  100  years  after  the   flood,  the  sons  of  Noah  were 
.  dispersed  abroad  and  settled  in  different  countries,  as  fol- 
lows : — 

Japheth  and  his  sons  peopled  Asia  Minor,  Europe,  and  the  islands. 
Japheth's  sons  were  Gomer,  Jav»n,  Madai,  Magog,  Meshech,  Tubal, 
Tiras. 

4 


26  OUTLINE     OF     HEBREW     HISTORY. 

Of  Shem's  sons,  Aram  settled  Aram  or  Syria,  and  Padan-aram  or 
Mesopotamia. 

Asshur  settled  Assyria. 

Arphaxad,  Chaldea  or  Shinar  ;  Elam  settled  Elam  or  Persia. 

Of  Ham's  sons,  Cush  settled  Arabia,  called  Ethiopia  in  Genesis. 

Misraim  settled  Egypt,  and  from  him  sprang  the  Philistines. 

Canaan  settled  the  land  of  Canaan. 

The  different  nations  or  tribes  of  Canaanites  took  their  names  from 
the  eleven  sons  of  Canaan,  viz :  the  Amorites,  Hittites,  Sinites,  Jehu- 
sites,  Arvadites,  Hivites,  Sidonians,  Hamathites,  &c. 

Terah  descended  through  several  generations  from  Arphaxad.'son 

of  Shem,  oppressed,  perhaps,  by  the  ambitious  intrusion  and  extreme 

idolatry  of  Ham's  posterity,  removed  with  his  family  from  Chaldea  to 

Haran,  in  the  north  part  of  Mesopotamia,  or  Padan-aram.     In  2083, 

Terah  died;    and,  in  the  same  year,  God  having  chosen, 

2083     Terah's  son  Abraham,  aged  seventy-five,  to  be  the  father  of  a 

Abraham,  peculiar  people  and  holy  nation,  called  or  commanded  him 

to  leave  Haran  and  go  to  Canaan,  promising  him  a  numerous 

posterity,  who  should  inherit  that  land.     Abraham  left  his  brother 

Nahor  at   Haran,   whose  son   Bethuel   was    father   of   Laban   and 

Rebecca. 

In  the  second  year  after  the  calling,  Abraham,  during  a  famine  in 
Canaan,  went  to  Egypt  with  his  whole  family,  where  he  passed  his 
wife  Sarah  for  his  sister,  and  had  the  mortification  to  see  her  taken 
from  him  by  the  king,  who  restored  her  on  finding  she  was  his  wife. 
Soon  after  their  return  to  Bethel,  in  Canaan,  Abraham,  and  his  kins- 
man Lot,  separated,  by  Abraham's  pacific  proposal,  on  account  of  a 
strife  between  their  herdsmen,  who  could  not  find  sufficient  pasture  for 
the  numerous  flocks  of  both:  Lot  went  to  Sodom,  in  the  vale  of  Sid- 
dim  ;  Abraham  to  Mamre  or  Hebron,  west  of  the  vale  of  Siddim.  In 
the  seventh  year,  2090,  Chedorlaomer,  king  of  Elam  or  Per- 

chedoriao- sia)  joined  with  three  other  kings,  invaded  the  Promised 
Son  of  the  Land.  After  overthrowing  the  gigantic  Rephaims,  Zuzims, 

PL™d?d  an(*  Emims,  east  of  Jordan,  and  the  Horites,  in  Mount  Seir, 
south  of  Canaan,  they  turned  to  the  north,  smote  the  Amo- 
rites, and  entered  the  vale  of  Siddim,  where  they  vanquished  the  five 
kings  of  Sodom,  Gomorrah,  Admah,  Zeboim,  Zoar  or  Bela;   took 
great  booty,  and  Lot  among  other  prisoners.     Abraham,  with  his  nu- 
merous servants,  pursued  the  victorious  enemy,  by  Dan  or  Laish,  to 
Hobah,  west  of  Damascus,  surprised  and  defeated  them ;  recovered  Lot 
and  all  the  spoils,  which  he  scrupulously  restored  to  the  kings  of 
Sodom,  &c.     Melchisedek  met  and  blessed  Abraham  on  his  return. 
In  Gen.  15,  16,  17,  we  have  an  account  of  the  repeated  promises  that 
God  made  to  Abraham,  of  an  heir,  and  of  the  sure  inheritance  of  the 
Promised  Land  by  his  numerous  posterity.     The  birth  of 
iaeh      Ishmael,  eleven  years  after  the  calling,  is  recorded  in  Gen. 

Destruction  16.     In  the  twenty-fourth  year,  after  seasonable  warning 
Gom^ah&  given  by  God>s  angels  to  Abraham  and  Lot,  Sodom  and  Go- 
morrah were  destroyed,  for  the  most  horrible  and  unnatural 
sins,  by  fire  and  brimstone  from  heaven ;  upon  which  the  vale  of  Sid- 
dim seems  to  have  been  changed  into-  a  sea,  called  the  Dead,  or  Salt 


OUTLINE     OF     HEBREW     HISTORY.  27 

Sea.  Lot  and  his  two  daughters  fled  to  the  mountains,  and  from  them 
incestuously  descended  the  Moabites  and  Ammonites,  east  of  the  Dead 
Sea  and  Jordan.  Abraham  went  to  Gerar,  in  the  land  of  the  Philis- 
tines, where  Isaac  was  born  in  2108,  the  next  year  after  the  destruction  of 
Sodom  and  Gomorrah  ;  Abraham  aged  100,  Sarah  90,  Ishmael  14.  By 
permission  of  Abimeleeh,  the  king,  Abraham  lived  many  years  at  Beer- 
sheba,  in  the  land  of  the  Philistines. 

Ishmael,  aged  19,  was  cast  out  into  the  wilderness  of  Paran,  south 
of  Canaan,  where  his  descendants,  the  Ishmaelites,  afterward  dwelt. 
Twenty  years  after  that  event,  Abraham,  still  living  at  Beer- 
°fffeaac°f  S^eba5  by  God's  command,  went  three  days' journey  to  Mount 
Moriah,  to  offer  his  son  Isaac,  aged  25,  for  a  burnt-offering  ] 
but,  after  he  had  stretched  out  his  hand  to  slay  his  son,  God,  satisfied 
with  his  wonderful  faith  and  obedience,  bid  him  spare  Isaac,  and  sacri- 
fice a  ram  in  his  stead. 

After  Abraham  had   returned  to  Mamre  or  Hebron,  Sarah  died, 
aged  127,  and  was  buried  in  the  cave  of  Machpelah,  which  Abraham 
bought  of  Ephron,  the  Hittite.     Three  years  after  the  death 
^ilg™*1  of  Sarah,  Abraham  sent  his  servant  to  Haran,  in  Mesopota- 
mia, who  brought  Rebecca  to  Mamre,  where  she  married  her 
cousin  Isaac- 
Two  years  after  the  marriage  of  Isaac,  Abraham  married  Keturah, 
by  whom  he  had  Midian,  father  of  the  Midianites,  east  of  the 
!Esau.n     Dead  Sea.     In  2168,  Jacob  and  Esau  were  born;   Isaac, 
their  father,  aged  60.     Esau  was  a  cunning  hunter,  a  man 
of  the  field;  but  Jacob  was  a  plain  man,  dwelling  in  tents. 
Abraham       2183,  Abraham  died,  aged  175,  and  was  buried  in  the  cave 

dies.  Of  Machpelah,  by  his  sons  Isaac  and  Ishmael. 
When  Jacob  and  Esau  were  31  years  old,  Esau,  coming  from  the 
field  faint  and  weary,  sold  his  birthright  to  Jacob  for  red  pottage. 
Isaac  went  to  dwell  at  Beersheba,  where  he  remained  till  after  the 
marriage  of  Jacob.  Esau  gave  offence  to  his  father  and  mother  by 
marrying  the  daughters  of  the  Hittites. 

Isaac  loved  Esau  because  he  did  eat  of  his  venison ;  but  Rebecca 
loved  Jacob;  and  he,  instructed  by  his  partial  mother,  fraudulently  ob- 
tained the  blessing  which  Isaac  had  promised  to  bestow  upon 
u^te^ng"8  Esau  on  his  return  from  the  field  with  venison.  Rebecca 
then  advised  Jacob  to  flee  and  avojd  the  rage  of  Esau  ;  and, 
at  her  entreaty,  Isaac  consented  to  let  him  go  to  Haran  to  mairy  one 
of  his  cousins.  The  fraud  and  falsehood  of  Jacob  drove  him  from  his 
father's  house,  a  fugitive,  with  nothing  but  his  staff,  and  destitute,  for 
the  time,  of  all  earthly  property  that  Esau's  birthright  or  Isaac's  bless- 
ing could  confer ;  yet  the  blessing  undesignedly  conferred  upon  him 
by  Isaac,  was  ratified  by  Heaven.  Sleeping  at  Luz  or  Bethel,  Jacob 
saw,  in  a  dream,  a  ladder  reaching  to  heaven,  and  angels  ascending 
and  descend  ing  upon  it;  and  God  stood  above  the  ladder,  and  con- 
firmed to  Jacob,  in  terms  of  peculiar  benignity  and  magnificence, 
all  the  promises  before  made  to  Abraham  and  Isaac.  Isaac  still  lived 
at  Beersheba. 

Twenty  years  Jacob  lived  at  Haran,  and  served  his  unprincipled  and 
miserly  uncle  Laban ;  seven  years  for  Leah,  who  was  deceitfully  given 


28  OUTLINE     OF     HEBREW      HISTORY. 

to  him  instead  of  Rachael,  whom  he  loved  ;  seven  years  more  for  Ra- 
chael. Joseph,  the  first  son  of  Rachael,  was  born  at  the  end  of  the 
fourteen  years.  By  a  new  agreement,  Jacob  served  the  last  six  years; 
and,  during  this  period,  notwithstanding  the  craft  and  injustice  of  La- 
ban,  his  father-in-law  and  uncle,  Jacfib  became  rich  in  cattle  and  flocks, 
with  the  most  evident  sanction  of  Providence.  Eleven  sons  and  one 
daughter  were  born  to  him  during  his  twenty  years'  residence  at  Ha- 
ran.  Twenty  years  after,  fleeing  from  the  resentment  of  his  angry  and 
injured  brother,  Jacob  secretly  left  Haran,  taking  with  him  his  wives, 
children,  and  flocks.  On  his  way  towards  Jordan  he  was  so  h'ippy  as 
to  appease  the  wrath  of  Laban,  who  pursued  him  to  Mount  Gilead ; 
and  soon  after,  by  presents  and  kindness,  he  disarmed  the  resentment 
of  his  brother  Esau,  who  had  filled  Jacob's  breast  with  alarm  by  cross- 
ing the  Jordan  with  400  men  to  meet  him.  Shortly  before  this  inter- 
view with  Esau,  Jacob  received  the  name  of  Israel  in  wrestling  with 
an  angel.  After  dismissing  Esau,  he  crossed  the  Jordan,  and  resided 
at  Shechem. 

The  following  events  happened  during  the  next  ten  years,  viz  : — The 
sudden  departure  of  Jacob  from  Shechem,  in  consequence  of  the  per- 
fidious cruelty  of  Simeon  and  Levi  to  the  Shechemites,  to  avenge  their 
sister  Dinah ;  the  birth  of  Benjamin,  and  death  of  Rachael,  near 
Bethlehem  ;  the  ncestuous  conduct  of  Reuben  ;  and  the  affair  of  Judah 
and  Tamar,  the  ancestors  of  Boaz,  from  whom  descended  Jesse,  the 

father  of  David,  and,  ultimately,  Jesus  Christ.  In  2275, 
imJ0°Egyp't°ld  Joseph  was  sold  by  his  brethren  to  Midianitish  or  Ishmaelitish 

merchants,  who  carried  him  into  Egypt,  and  there  sold  him 
to  Potiphar,  captain  of  Pharaoh's  guards. 

In  2288,  Isaac  died,  aged  188,  and  was  buried  in  the  cave 
Dis!jiac.of  °f  Machpelah,  by  his  sons  Jacob  and  Esau.     Soon  after,  Esau 

removed  to  Mount  Seir  or  Mount  Hor,  south  of  Canaan,  and 
from  him  descended  the  Edomites  and  Amalekites.-^See  1  Chronicles, 
1st  chapter,  35th  and  36th  verses.  In  the  year  of  Isaac's  death,  Joseph, 
ten  years  after  he  was  sold,  was  released  from  prison,  where  he  had 
been  two  years  unjustly  confined,  and  made  governor  of  all  Egypt, 
in  consequence  of  interpreting  Pharaoh's  two  dreams. 

In  2298,  Jacob's  whole  family,  consisting  of  seventy  persons,  male 

and  female,  went  into  Egypt  by  the  invitation  of  Joseph,  and 
RemE^pt!'to  settled  there  under  his  protection.— -See  Gen.,  from  the  39th 

to  the  50th  chapter,  for  the  history  of  Joseph,  of  which  no 
adequate  abridgment  could  be  made,  and  with  which  almost  every  child 
is  acquainted. 

In  2315,  after  having  lived  in  Egypt  seventeen  years,  Jacob 
Peath  of  ja-  fae^  age(j  147  an(j  was  carriedwith  great  pomp  into  Canaan 

by  his  son  Joseph,  and  buried  in  the  cave  of  Machpelah, 
at  Hebron. 

Joseph  had  two  sons,  Ephraim  and  Manasseh,  whom  Jacob,  in  his 
last  moments,  adopted  as  his  own.  He  survived  his  father  fifty-four 

years,  and  died,  aged  110:  having,  like  his  father,  predicted 
J°-  the  return  of  his  brethren  into  the  Promised  Land,  and  charg- 
ed them  to  carry  his  bones  with  them.     Here  ends  the  book 
of  Genesis,  and  the  book  of  Exodus  commences. 


OUTLINE  OF  HEBREW  HISTORY.        29 

After  the  death  of  Joseph,  the  children  of  Israel  became  very  numer- 
ous, and  suffered  every  species  of  cruelty  and  oppression  from  the  jeal- 
ous tyranny  of  the  kings  of  Egypt.     Mosee,  their  deliverer, 
Moses,     was  born  in  2430,  three  years  after  his  elder  brother  Aaron. 

At  that  time,  an  existing  decree  of  the  king  of  Egypt,  doomed 
every  new-born  son  of  a  Hebrew  to  be  cast  into  the  river,  to  prevent 
the  dreaded  increase  of  this  people.  The  mother  of  Moses,  hoping  to 
save  the  life  of  her  infant  son,  after  concealing  him  three  months,  ex- 
posed  him  by  the  river's  brink,  in  an  ark  of  bull-rushes ;  the  daughter 
of  Pharaoh,  the  king,  found  the  ark,  saved  the  child,  and  had  him  edu- 
cated as  her  own  son.  Moses  was  descended  from  Jacob,  through 
Levi,  Kohath,  and  Amram,  the  father  of  Moses  and  Aaron. 

In  2473,  Moses,  aged  40,  killed  an  Egyptian  whom  he 
an8, savv  contending  with  a  Hebrew ;  and,  to  avoid  the  resentment 
'of  Pharaoh,  he  fled  to  Midian,  east  of  the  Red  Sea,  where  he 
married  Zipporah,  daughter  of  Jethro,  priest  of  Midian.  Zipporah 
bore  him  two  sons,  Gershom  and  Eleazer.  After  Moses  had  been  forty 

years  with  Jethro,  God  appeared  to  him  in  a  burning  bush,  at 
Thebush"mg  Mount  Horeb,  and  commanded  him  to  return  to  Egypt,  and 

deliver  Israel  from  bondage.  He  complied :  his  brother 
Aaron  met  him  in  the  wilderness,  and  the  two  brothers  gave  such 

proofs   of  their  mission,   particularly  by  the    ten   plagues 
plague"    which  they  inflicted  on  the  Egyptians,  that  Pharaoh  finally 

consented  to  let  Israel  go  and  sacrifice,  which  was  all  the  fa- 
vour that  Moses  and  Aaron  were  enjoined  to  demand  of  the  king.  The 
ten  plagues — the  waters  of  Egypt  turned  into  blood  ;  the  land  covered 
with  frogs ;  the  dust  turned  into  lice ;  grievous  swarms  of  flies  sent 
into  the  houses ;  the  cattle  killed  with  murrain  ;  man  and  beast  afflict- 
ed with  biles ;  destructive  hail  sent,  mingled  with  fire ;  clouds  of  de- 
vouring locusts  darken  the  whole  land  ;  thick  darkness  for  three  days ; 

all  the  first-born  of  Egypt  killed  both  of  man  and  beast.  On 
Passover,  this  occasion  the  Passover  was  instituted — a  feast  or  ordinance 

designed  to  commemorate  God's  peculiar  favour  to  his  peo- 
ple in  passing-over  their  houses,  and  sparing  their  first-born,  when  he 
killed  all  the  first-born  of  Egypt. 

When  the  king  found  that  the  people  were  fleeing  from  Egypt  alto- 
2513     gether,  he  pursued  them  ;  but  the  Red  Sea,  which  opened  to 
Passage  of  the  give  Israel  a  passage,  closed  upon  the  pursuing  host  of  Pha- 
RedSea.    raon,  and  drowned  them.     The  children  of  Israel  were  con- 
ducted in  their  journey  by  a  pillar  of  cloud  by  day,  and  a  pillar  of  fire 
by  night.  Having  crossed  the  Red  Sea,  and  sung  a  song  of  praise  to  God, 
they  journeyed  to  Marah,  where  Moses  sweetened  the  bitter  water  by 
casting  a  tree  into  it ;  thence,  by  Elim  to  Zin,  where  quails  and  manna 
were  sent  to  appease  the  hunger  and  murmurs  of  the  people ;  thence 
to  Rephidim,  where  Moses  struck  the  rock  of  Horeb,  and  drew  water 
from  it  for  his  ever-murmuring  brethren,  and  where  Joshua  defeated  the 
cowardly-assailing  Amalekites;  thence,  in  the  third  month  after  exodus 
or  departure,  to  Sinai,  where  God  published  his  laws  and  command- 
ments, in  a  terrible  voice,  from  the  smoking  top  of  the  burning  mount. 
Moses  forty  Here  Moses,  after  spending  forty  days  with  God  on  the  mount, 
days  on  the  received  from  him  the  two  tables  of  the  law  in  stone ;  while 
unt-  the  people  at  the  foot  of  the  mount  fell  into  gross  idolatry,  by 


30  OUTLINE     OP     HEBREW     HISTORY. 

making  and  worshipping  a  golden  calf,  for  which  3000  were  put  to 
death  by  the  command  of  Moses,  on  his  return.     Here  also  the  priest- 
hood was  established  in  the  family  of  Aaron  ;  and  the  whole  family  of 
Levi  was  set  apart  for  the  service  of  religion ;  the  moveable  tabernacle, 
the  ark,  and  all  their  appurtenances,  were  made  here.     By 
70  EMcre.     the  advice  of  Jeth  ro,  who  came  here  to  meet  Moses,  70  elders 
were  appointed  to  assist  in  judging  the  people — here  the  peo- 
ple were  numbered,  and  found  to  be  600,000,  that  were  males,  twenty 
years  old  and  upwards,  besides  Levites.     The  book  of  Exodus  ends 
with  the  account  of  setting  up  the  tabernacle.     Leviticus  contains  the 
Levitical  laws,  or  laws  of  Moses ;  Numbers  commences  with  an  ac- 
count  of  numbering  the  people,  and  contains  some  laws,  and  con- 
siderable history ;   Deuteronomy  gives  a  repetition  of  many 
Deuteronomy.jaws^  an(j  rejates  ^  |ast  transactions  and  death  of  Moses. 

On  the  20th  of  the  2d  month,  of  the  2d  year  after  exodus  or  depart- 
ure out  of  Egypt,  the  people  set  off  to  pursue  their  journey  toward  the 
Promised  Land.  At  Taberah,  the  fire  of  the  Lord  cousumed  many  of 
the  people,  because  they  murmured.  At  Kibroth-Httaavah,  God  sent 
quails  in  wrath,  and  a  plague  destroyed  great  numbers  of  the  people, 
because  they  murmured.  At  Hazeroth,  God's  anger  was  kindled 
against  Aaron  and  Miriam,  for  murmuring  against  their  brother  Mo- 
ses. From  Kadesh,  Moses  sent  twelve  men  to  examine  the 
The  12  Spies,  land  of  Canaan,  who,  except  Caleb  and  Joshua,  made  an  un- 
favourable report,  calculated  to  terrify  and  dishearten  their 
brethren  ;  a  mutiny  ensued  in  the  camp  of  Israel,  and  the  rebellious  He- 
brews threatened  to  choose  a  captain  to  conduct  them  back  to  Egyptian 
servitude;  which  provoked  God  to  denounce  that  all  who  were  twenty 
years  old,  and  upwards,  should  die  in  the  wilderness ;  that  not  one  of 
them  should  enter  the  Promised  Land,  except  Caleb  and  Joshua.  Some 
of  the  people  who  went  to  attack  the  Canaanites,  and  enter  the  land,  in 
defiance  of  God's  commands,  were  smitten  and  discomfited.  About 
two  years  had  now  elapsed  since  the  exodus  ;  and,  from  this  time,  very 
little  is  recorded  of  this  seditious  and  ungrateful  people  for  the  space 
of  thirty-seven  years,  till  the  last  year  of  Moses.  In  this  interval  we 
must  place  the  wicked  and  fatal  rebellion  of  Korah,  Dathan.and  Abiram, 
who  were  swallowed  up  by  the  earth  before  the  door  of  the  tabernacle. 
On  this  occasion,  God  gave  a  signal  sanction  to  the  authority  of  Aaron, 
by  causing  his  rod  only,  out  of  the  twelve  rods  laid  up  in  the  tabernacle, 
to  blossom  and  bear  fruit. 

At  Meribah,  in  the  last  year  of  Moses,  he  and  Aaron  incurred  God's 
displeasure  by  their  impatient  and  unadvised  manner  of  speaking  to 
the  people,  when  God  commanded  them  to  draw  water  from  the  rock 
for  the  murmuring  host.  For  this  offence  Moses  and  Aaron  were  both 
excluded  from  entering  the  Promised  Land. — See  Numbers  20,  and 
Psalms  106,  32d  and  33d  verses.  Miriam,  the  sister  of  Moses,  died 
shortly  before  that  event;  Aaron  died  soon  after  it  at  Mount  Hor,  and 
his  son  Eleazer  succeeded  to  the  priesthood.  Perhaps  the  place  can- 
not be  fixed  where  Moses  made  the  brazen  serpent  to  cure  those  who, 
for  their  seditious  murmurs,  had  been  mortally  bitten  by  fiery  serpents. 
After  compassing  Edom  and  Moab,  through  which  a  passage  was  de- 
nied them,  the  children  of  Israel  at  last  arrived  and  encamped  in  the 
plains  of  Moab,  east  of  Jordan.  Here  Israel  conquered  the  countries 


OUTLINE     OF     HEBREW     HISTORY.  31 

of  Sihon,  king  of  the  Amorites,  and  of  Og,  king  of  Bashan  or  Gilead  ; 
and  Moses  divided  the  conquered  territories  among  the  tribes  of  Reu- 
ben and  Gad,  and  the  half  tribe  of  Manasseh.  He  also  caused  12,000 
men  to  ravage  and  lay  waste  Moab,  whose  daughters,  by  the 
Balaam.  advice  of  Balaam,  the  soothsayer,  had  corrupted  the  sons  of 
Israel.  Balaam  had  been  called  from  Mesopotamia,  to  curse 
Israel,  with  offers  of  great  reward  by  Balak,  king  of  Moab  and  Midian  ; 
but,  overruled  by  God,  he  blessed  Israel  altogether,  and  prophesied  of 
their  prosperity  and  of  their  future  dominion  over  the  nations.  Balaam 
was  slain  with  the  kings  of  Midian  in  this  war. 

Forty  years  having  now  elapsed  since  the  exodus,  Moses,  after  re- 
peating many  laws ;  inculcating,  with  paternal  solicitude,  his  last  advice 
and  parting  admonitions,  and  blessing  each  tribe  except  that  of  Simeon, 
went,  by  God's  command,  to  the  top  of  Pisgah,  where  he  died,  having 
thence  viewed  the  land  which  he  was  not  permitted  to  enter  with  his 
brethren.     He  was   120  years  of  age;  yet  his  eye  was  not  dim,  nor 
his  natural  force  abated.     Here  ends  the  Pentateuch,  or  five 
Joshua^   Books  of  Moses,  containing  the  history  of  2553  years  from 

the  creation.     The  book  of  Joshua  commences  here. 
After  the  death  of  Moses,  none  remained  of  all  the  men  twenty  years 
old  and  upwards,  that  were  numbered  at  Sinai,  except  Joshua,  of  the 
tribe  of  Ephraim,  and  Caleb,  of  the  tribe  of  Judah.     Joshua 
2553     succeeding  Moses  in  the  command  of  the  tribes  of  Israel,  led 
feraei  enters  them  across  the  Jordan,  whose  waters  divided  as  the  priests 
Land?"1'      entered  it  with  the  ark,  and  continued  divided  till  the  ark  was 
borne  out  by  the  priests,  after  the  people  had  completed  their 
passage.     Twelve  stones  pitched  in  the  channel  of  the  river,  and  twelve 
more  taken  out  of  the  river,  and  pitched  at  Gilgal,  long  stood  as  a  me- 
morial of  this  miraculous  passage.     Circumcision,  which  was  first  in- 
troduced by  Abraham,  one  year  before  the  birth  of  Isaac,  was  now 
renewed,  after  having  been  omitted  forty  years ;  and  the  Passover  was 
celebrated  for  the  first  time  in  the  Land  of  Promise.     Manna  ceased  to 
fall  the  next  day  after  the  celebration  of  the  Passover 
Joshua.        From  Gilgal,  which  long  continued  the  place  of  encamp- 
ment, Joshua  led  the  armies  of  Israel  against  Jericho,  whose 
Jencho.    wa]is  fen  down  at  the  blasts  of  the  trumpets  and  shouts  of  the 
people,  after  having  been  several  times  encompassed  by  the  armed  men 
followed  by  priests,  bearing  trumpets  of  rams'  horns,  and  the  ark.    All 
the  inhabitants  of  Jericho  were  put  to  the  sword,  except  the  family  of 
Rahab,  who  had  faithfully  concealed  the  spies  sent  there  by  Joshua, 
before  he  crossed  the  Jordan.     In,  the  first  attack  upon  Ai,  Israel  was 
smitten  and  repulsed  for  the  sin  of  Achan,  who  had  taken  of  the  ac- 
cursed thing  in  stealing  and  hiding  several  valuable  articles  that  he 
found  among  the  spoils  ;  but,  after  Achan  was  punished,  Ai  was  taken 
by  stratagem  and  destroyed.     Soon  after  Joshua  was  called  to  defend 
the  Gibeonites,  whose  ambassadors  pretending  to  be  from  a  far  country, 
had  artfully  drawn  him  into  a  league.    He  defeated  the  five  kings  who 
attacked  Gibeon  ;  and,  that  he  might  have  sufficient  time  to  make  the 
destruction  of  his  enemies  complete,  he  commanded  the  sun 
standstill  to  stan(^  st^  over  Gibeon,  and  the  moon  over  the  valley  of 
over  Gibeon.  Aijalon  ;  and  thus  the  day  was  prolonged      After  destroying 


32       OUTLINE  OF  HEBREW  HISTORY. 

their  armies,  and  hanging  the  five  kings,  who  were  found  hidden  in 
the  cave  of  Makkedah,  Joshua  went  against  their  cities  of  Jebus,  Eglon, 
Jarmuth,  Lachish,  and  Hebron,  which  he  took  and  destroyed,  except 
Jebus  or  Jerusalem,  and  soon  .subdued  all  the  southern  part  of  the  land. 
Soon  after  he  vanquished  a  hostile  confederacy  of  the  northern  kings  ; 
of  whom  Jabin,'king  of  Razor,  was  the  principal ;  took  their  cities,  and 
possessed  himself  of  their  country. 

After  prosecuting  his  wars  about  six  years  from  the  death  of  Moses, 
Joshua  had  conquered  thirty-one  kings  in  Canaan ;  and  even  then  he 
left  many  native  tribes  unsubdued,  that  generally  paid  tribute  to  Israel, 
but  continually  seduced  them  into  idolatrous  practices,  and  often  proved 
formidable  enemies.  In  the  seventh  year,  Joshua  proceeded 
AtheTribes.°fto  divide  the  conquered  country,  by  lot,  among  the  nine  tribes 
and  a  half  that  remained  to  be  provided  for.  It  would  seem 
that,  at  first,  the  tribes  of  Judah,  Ephraim,  and  Manasseh,  received  for 
their  allotments,  all  the  country  south  of  Galilee ;  and  that  afterward, 
Benjamin,  Simeon,  and  Dan,  had  thetr  portions  carved  out  of  Judah  and 
Ephraim.  There  was  no  tribe  that  bore  the  name  of  Joseph,  but  three 
allotments  were  made  to  his  two  sons,  viz : — Manasseh,  half  tribe  east 
of  Jordan,  and  Ephraim  and  Manasseh,  half  tribe  west  of  Jordan. 
There  was  no  tribe  of  Levi,  because  his  descendants  were  consecrated 
to  the  priesthood ;  but  they  had  forty-eight  cities,  called  Levitical  cities, 
appointed  for  their  residence.  Ephraim  and  Manasseh,  the  sons  of 
Joseph,  supplied  the  place  among  the  tribes  of  Joseph  and  Levi,  mak- 
ing the  number  twelve,  equal  to  that  of  Jacob's  sons. 

The  tribes  may  be  committed  to  memory  in  the  following  portions: 
Reuben,  Gad,  Manasseh  half  tribe,  east  of  Jordan,  conquered  and 
allotted  by  Moses. 

Pursuing  the  order  of  conquest,  the  next  portion  may  be,  Benjamin, 
Judah,  Simeon,  Dan,  which  constituted  Judea  under  the  Romans  ;  most 
of  which  also  seems  to  have  been  comprised  in  the  first  allotment  to 
Judah ;  and  conclusive  arguments  might  be  offered  to  show,  that  nearly 
all  the  territory  included  in  these  four  tribes  generally  belonged  to  the 
successors  of  Solomon,  after  the  dismemberment  of  the  kingdom ;  third 
portion,  Ephraim  and  Manasseh  half  tribe,  which,  after  the  restora- 
tion of  the  Jews,  constituted  Samaria  between  Judea  and  Galilee ; 
fourth  and  last  portion,  Ashur,  Zebulon,  IssacharT  Naphtali,  which 
constitutes  Galilee. 

While  the  division  of  the  country  was  going  on,  Joshua  set  up  the 
tabernacle  containing  the   ark,  at  Shiloh,  in  the  tribe  of 
^t  a5to£e  Ephraim,  (where  it  continued  328  years,  from  2560  to  2888,) 
1  in  the  first  year  of  Samuel.     Six  Levitical  cities  were  ap- 

pointed as  places  of  refuge  for  the  man-slayer,  till  he  could  be  brought 
to  a  legal  trial ;  Bezer,  Ramoth-Gilead,  and  Golan,  east  of  Jordan ; 
Hebron,  Shechem,  and  Kade.sk,  west  of  Jordan.  -Caleb,  for  his  merit 
and  valour,  obtained  Hebron  in  Judah,  for  his  portion.  To  Joshua, 
the  children  of  Israel  gave  Timnath-Serah  in  his  o*vn  tribe  of  Ephraim. 
After  the  division  of  the  land  was  completed,  the  two  tribes  and  a  half 
that  had  received  their  allotments,  east  of  Jordan,  were  sent  home  with 
a  blessing,  having  faithfully  followed  Joshua  in  his  wars,  as  Moses-  re- 


OUTLINE      OF      HEBREW     HISTORY.  33 

quired,  when  he  gave  them  their  portions.     Joshua  died,  aged  110,  in 
2567,  or,  as  some  think,  tea  years  later. 


JUDGES. 

OTHNIEL,  ABDON. 

EHUD,  TOLA, 

SHAMGAR.  JAIR,  ELI, 

JEPTHAH.  SAMSON, 

DEBORAH,  —  SAMUEL. 

GIDEON,  IBZON,  — 

ABIMELECH.  ELON, 

The  book  of  Judges  commences  here.     The  342  years  from  the 
death  of  Joshua  to  the  reign  of  Saul,  is  called  the  period  of 

t)—  C***f 

/SOD/  tne  ju(]ges  j  but  die  greater  part  of  it  was  a  time  of  anarchy, 
distraction,  and  wickedness,  and  of  wretched  subjection  to 
idolatrous  and  revengeful  neighbours,  whose  gods  Israel  worshipped, 
and  whose  kings  they  painfully  served.  There  was  not  any  regular 
succession  of  Judges ;  but  those  so  called,  during  this  period,  were 
usually  persons  providentially  raised  up  by  God  to  deliver  his  people 
from  oppression.  The  idolatry  ofMicah,  and  the  removal  of  the  Dan- 
ites  to  Laish,  who  on  their  way  robbed  Micah  of  his  priest  and  gods, 
took  place  forty-five  years  after  the  death  of  Moses.  Laish,  at  the  head 
of  Jordan,  thence  bore  the  name  of  Dan.  About  the  same  time,  hap- 
pened the  desolating  war  waged  against  the  tribe  of  Benjamin,  by  all 
the  other  tribes,  on  account  of  the  Levite's  wife  :  by  which  all  the  peo- 
ple of  Benjamin  were  killed,  except  600  men. — See  5  last  chapters  of 
the  book  of  Judges,  which,  in  due  order  of  time,  should  be  read  before 
the  history  of  the  several  judges  and  servitudes. 

Because  the  children  of  Israel  perversely  served  the  gods  of  their 

idolatrous  neighbours,  the  Lord  sold  them  into  the  hands  of 

bondage  "to  the  king  of  Mesopotamia,  whom  they  served  eight  years. 

the  Mesopo  gut  xvhen  they  cried  unto  the  Lord,  he  raised  up  for  their  de- 

tamiaiis.  .  J  '     .      .  r 

livefer  Othniel,  the  nephew  and  son-m-law  of  Caleb. 
It  is  probable  that  during  the  greater  part  of  this  interval  of  eighty 

years,  Israel  was  in  a  state  of  anarchy.  During  eighteen 
To  thit(^oab~  years  of  it,  they  served  Eglon,  king  of  Moab,  who  took  and 

possessed  Jericho,  the  city  of  palm-trees ;  finally,  Ehud,  a 
Benjamite,  being  charged  with  a  present  to  Eglon,  gained  access  to 
the  king  alone,  in  his  summer-parlour,  on  a  pretence  of  revealing  a 
secret  message,  there  stabbed  him  with  a  dagger,  and  delivered  Israel. 
Twenty  years  Israel  served  Jabin,  king  of  Hazor,  who 
T°of  HaS"8  had  90°  chariots  of  iron.  Deborah  and  Barak,  leading  out 

10,000  men  of  Zebulon  and  Naphtali,  defeated  Jabin's  army  ; 
upon  which,  Sisera,  Jabin's  captain,  took  refuge  in  the  tent  of  Heber, 
the  Kenite,  and  was  there,  while  fast  asleep  on  the  ground,  killed  by 
Jael,  the  wife  of  Heber,  who  drove  a  nail  of  the  tent  into  his  temples. 
The  people  resorted  to  Deborah,  dwelling  under  her  palm-tree,  in 
Mount  Ephraim,  to  be  judged. 

5 


34  OUTLINE     OP     HEBREW     HISTORY. 

Israel,  having  served  Midian  seven  years,  was  delivered 
T°  S!di"  by  Gideon  ;  who,  after  reducing  his  army  of  32,000  to  300 
by  God's  direction,  surprised  the  camp  of  Midian  at  night, 
by  his  stratagem  of  trumpets  and  lamps  concealed  in  pitchers,  and  so 
terrified  the  sleeping  enemy  with  the  sudden  noise  and  clash,  and  in- 
stant blaze  of  light,  that  they  wildly  fled  over  Jordan,  whither  Gideon 
pursued  and  destroyed  them.  On  his  return  he  demolished  Penueland 
Succoth,  east  of  Jordan,  and  chastised  the  inhabitants  with  briars  and 
thorns,  because  they  had  refused  to  relieve  his  army  in  pursuit  of  the 
Midianites.  Gideon  refused  to  rule  over  Israel,  though  the  people 
offered  him  the  authority.  He  left  seventy  sons,  by  several  wives. 

Abimelech,  one  of  his  sons  by  a  woman  of  Shechem,  destroyed  all 
his  brethren  but  Jotham,  the  youngest,  and  was  made  king  by  the 
Shechemites.  After  reigning  three  years,  he  destroyed  Shechem  and 
sowed  it  with  salt,  because  the  people  conspired  against  him.  Soon 
after,  in  besieging  Thebez,  he  was  killed  by  a  piece  of  mill-stone, 
which  a  woman  cast  upon  his  head.  Tola  judged  Israel  twenty-three 
years. 

During  the  greater  part  of  Jair's  twenty-two  years,  Israel  was  sorely 
oppressed  by  the  Philistines,  on  the  southwest,  and  the  Ammonites,  en 
the  east.     Jephthah,  of  Manasseh  or  Gilead,  east  of  Jordan,  delivered 
the  eastern  Israelites  from  the  oppression  of  the  Ammonites.     On  his 
return  home,  Jephthah  sacrificed  his  daughter  to  fulfil  an  in- 
da^tghter.  discreet  vow — "  If  thou  wilt  deliver  the  Ammonites  into  mine 
hands,  I  will  offer  up  for  a  burnt-offering,  whatsoever  cometh 
out  of  the  door  of  my  house  to  meet  me."     Some  commentators  con- 
tend that  he  only  devoted  his  daughter  to  celibacy.     The  Ephraimites, 
offended  that  Jephthah  did  not  ask  their  aid  against  the  Ammonites, 
passed  over  Jordan  to  fight  him.     Jephthah  having  vanquished  and 
dispersed  them,  seized  the  passes  of  Jordan  to  prevent  their  retreat; 
and  whenever  any  man  wished  to  pass,  the  Gileadites  discerned  whe- 
ther he  was  an  Ephraimite,  by  asking  him  to  pronounce  Shibboleth  ; 
and,  if  he  said  Sibboleth,  they  slew  him. 

Of  Ibzan,  Elon,  Abdon,  it  is  merely  said  that  they  judged  Israel  so 
many  years  respectively. 

Eli  judged  Israel  forty  years.  He  was  high-priest  in  the  line  of 
Ithamar,  the  youngest  son  of  Aaron,  and  was  the  first  in  that  line,  who 
ever  bore  the  office.  The  high-priesthood,  after  descending  in  his 
family,  through  Ahitub,  Ahimelech,  and  Abiathar,  was  restored  by 
David  to  the  line  of  Eleazer,  in  the  person  of  Zadok.  Phinehas,  the  son 
of  Eleazer,  was  promised  a  perpetual  priesthood  in  his  line,  for  his 
Israel  serves  prompt  and  indignant  punishment  of  the  offenders  in  the 

.«t»e       matter  of  Peor. — See  Numbers,  25th.      Israel  served  the 
Philistines  during  the  whole  time  of  Eli. 

The  twenty  years  of  Samson,  coincide  with  the  last  twenty  years  of 
Eli.  Samson  is  said  to  have  judged  Israel  twenty  years ;  but  the  de- 
tail of  his  history,  represents  him  only  as  a  champion  against  the  Phi- 
listines, slaying  his  thousands,  and  otherwise  afflicting  his  inveterate 
enemies  by  means  of  his  matchless  and  miraculous  strength.  This 
extraordinary  strength  lay  in  his  hair,  which  was  consecrated  by  the 
law  of  the  Nazarite. — See  the  law  of  the  Nazarite,  Numbers  6th. 


OUTLINE     OF     HEBREW     HISTORY,  35 

The  following  brief  enumeration  exhibits  the  principal 
Samson.  achievements  and  adventures  of  Samson  : — His  marriage  to 
a  Philistine  woman,  of  Timnath ;  his  slaying  thirty  men,  of 
Askalon,  and  taking  their  raiment  to  perform  the  wager;  which  the 
Philistines  had  won  of  him,  by  drawing  from  his  wife  the  meaning  of 
his  riddle;  his  resentment  at  finding  his  wife  given  by  her  father  to 
another  man,  displayed  in  setting  fire  to  the  cornfields,  vineyards,  and 
olive  gardens  of  the-  Philistines,  by  fire-brands  tied  to  the  tails  of  three 
hundred  foxes,  which  he  caught  for  the  purpose  ;  his  being  surrendered 
on  one  occasion,  to  the  imperious  and  revengeful  Philistines,  by  three 
thousand  of  his  own  servile  and  submissive  countrymen;  his  escape 
from  Gaza,  bearing  on  his  shoulders  the  gates  of  the  city  ;  his  unhappy 
love  for  the  perfidious  Delilah,  and  his  great  misfortune  in  being  by  her 
deprived  of  his  hair  and  strength,  while  sleeping  on  her  lap — upon 
which  the  Philistines  took  him,  put  out  his  eyes,  and  threw  him  into 
prison,  bound  in  fetters  of  brass ;  the  recovery  of  his  hair  and  strength, 
and  finally  his  last  exploit,  in  pulling  down  the  house  of  the  Philistine 
god,  Dagon,  and  killing,  together  with  himself,  a  vast  multitude  of 
Philistines  assembled  to  make  sport  of  him  ;  thus  slaying  more  at  his 
death  than  he  had  slain  in  his  whole  life. 

It  seemed  proper  to  arrange  the  chronology  of  Eli  and  Samson,  be- 
fore leaving  the  book  of  Judges  to  enter  upon  that  of  Samuel.  The 
history  of  Samuel  blends  with  the  histories  of  both  Eli  and  Saul.  The 
first  chapter  of  the  book  of  Samuel  gives  an  account  of  his  birth,  in 
2833,  and  of  his  early  consecration  to  the  Lord,  by  his  mother  Hannah, 
who  placed  him  in  the  tabernacle,  under  the  care  of  Eli.  The  second 
chapter  relates  the  evil  conduct  of  Eli's  sons,  and  a  prophecy  against 
his  family.  The  third  chapter  describes  the  vision  that  revealed  to 
Samuel  the  destruction  of  Eli's  family;  Samuel  then  being  a  pupil  of 
Eli,  in  the  service  of  the  tabernacle.  The  fourth  chapter  relates  the 
disastrous  overthrow  of  Israel  by  the  Philistines,  in  two  bat- 
elSc.  ^es'  ifl  tne  latter  of  which  Eli's  two  sons  fell,  and  the  ark  was 
taken  which  had  been  brought  to  the  camp  from  Shiloh,  in 
a  vain  presumption  of  its  affording  protection  to  sinful  Israel.  When 
Eli  heard  of  the  taking  of  the  ark  by  the  Philistines,  and  of  the  death 
of  his  two  sons,  Hophni  and  Phinehas,  he  fell  from  his  chair  and  broke 
his  neck. 

The  Philistines  of  Ashdod,  afflicted  with  disease  by  the  presence  of 
the  ark,  and  seeing  their  god  Dagon,  twice  fall  down  before  it  broken 
in  pieces,  sent  it  away  to  their  city  of  Gath  ;  whose  inhabitants,  also  as- 
sailed by  disease,  sent  it  to  Ekron ;  whence,  for  the  same  reason,  the 
people  sent  it  away  to  Bethshemesh,  in  Israel.  Here  50,000  Israelites 
were  smitten  for  looking  into  the  ark,  and  the  people  removed 
it  to  Kirjath-jearim,  where  it  remained  until  David  had  it  taken  to 
Jerusalem. 

During  the  righteous  government  of  Samuel,  who  succeeded  Eli,  the 
Lord  discomfited  the  Philistines  with  thunder,  and  the  hand  of  the 
Lord  was  against  them  all  the  time  that  Samuel  judged  Israel.  Though 
the  conduct  of  Samuel  himself  had  been  upright,  and  beneficial  to  the 
nation  ;  yet,  in  consequence  of  the  alleged  disorderly  and  oppressive 
conduct  of  his  sons,  Joel  and  Abiah,  in  office  under  him,  the  people 


36  OUTLINE     OF     HEBREW     HISTORY. 

assembled,  and  petitioned  Samuel  to  make  them  a  king  to  judge  them, 
like  all  the  nations.     God  was  displeased  at  their  thus  rejecting  his 
divine  authority,  but  gave  them  a  king  in  his  wrath;  and  by  his  special 
directions,  Samuel  chose  and  anointed  Saul,  the  son  of  Kish, 
2909     a  Benjarnite,  to  rule  over  them.     Saul's  prompt  and  success- 
ful defence   of  Jabesh  Gilead,  east   of  Jordan,  against  the 
inhuman  Nahash,  king  of  the  Ammonites,  soon  rendered  him  popular 
and  completely  established  his  authority. 


KINGS  OF  ISRAEL  AND  JUDAH.  , 

SAUL  reigned  40  }  They  reigned  over  the  whole  land  of  Israel  ; 
DAVID  "  40  >  which,  after  the  death  of  Solomon,  was  divided 
SOLOMON  "  40  )  into  two  kingdoms,  viz  :  Judah  and  Israel ;  3029. 

The  Philistines  made  repeated  and  vexatious  inroads  upon  the  land 
of  Israel  :  but  it  is  not  easy  to  ascertain  the  precise  time  of  many 
events  that  happened  during  Saul's  reign  of  forty  years.  Chronologers 
usually  fix  Jonathan's  victory  over  the  Philistines  in  the  eighth  year  of 
his  father's  reign  ;  Saul's  expedition  against,  the  Amalekites,  in  the  six- 
teenth year  ;  and  the  anointing  of  David  at  Bethlehem,  in  the  thirty- 
second — 8,  16,  '32,  40.  For  the  sinful  presumption  of  Saul,  in  assum- 
ing the  priest's  office,  and  sacrificing  before  the  arrival  of  Samuel ;  for 
his  culpable  adjuration  of  the  people  on  the  occasion  of  Jonathan's  vic- 
tory, in  saying,  "  Cursed  be  the  man  that  eateth  any  food  till  evening ;  " 
but  more  particularly  for  his  flagrant  disobedience  in  sparing  king 
Agag,  and  the  best  of  the  spoils,  when  Samuel  had  commanded  him 
utterly  to  destroy  the  Amalekites,  and  all  they  possessed,  God  rejected 
him  ;  and  Samuel,  after  hewing  Agag  in  pieces,  abandoned  his  rejected 
king,  and  went  home  to  Ramah. 

Afterward  God  commanded  Samuel  to  go  to  Bethlehem,  in  Judah, 

under  a  pretence  of  sacrificing  there,  and  anoint  David,  son 

anoints  Da-  of  Jesse,  to  be  king  instead  of  Saul.     Jesse  descended  by  two 

vid-       generations  from  Boaz  and  Ruth,  and  Boaz  was  a  descendant 

of  Judah  and  Tamar.     Reuben  was  the  eldest  son  of  Jacob;  Joseph 

was  the  favourite,  and  most  worthy  of  the    patriarchal    succession. 

The  priesthood  was  given  to  the  descendants  of  Levi ;  but  the  royal 

line  was  derived  from  Judah,  the  fourth  son.     David  was  of  the  tribe  of 

Judah,  and  from  the  line  of  David  descendrd  Jesus  Christ. 

.It  seems  to  have  been  soon  after  the  anointing  of  David,  that  Saul, 

being  informed  of  his  superior  skill  in  playing  upon  the  harp,  sent  for 

him  to  play  away  his  evil  spirit ;  and  it  was  probably  in  the  same  year 

that  David  slew  the  gigantic  Goliath,  proud  champion  of  the 

^Gotia&r  Philistines.     David's  valjant  deeds,  and  the  popular  praise 

that  he  received,  excited  the  deadly  envy  and  hatred  of  Saul. 

After  giving  David  his  daughter  Mic.hal  in  marriage,  by  which  he 

hoped  to  ensnare  him,  Saul  continually  persecuted  his  son-in-law,  and 

sought  his  life  with  the  most  unrelenting  malice. 

While  David  remained  with  Saul,  he  several  times  very  narrowly 
escaped  being  killed  by  the  hands  of  his  father-in-law,  and,  when  he 
finally  fled,  he  owed  his  escape  to  the  faithful  care  and  counsel  of 


OUTLINE     OP     HEBREW     HISTORY.  37 

Jonathan,  Saul's  son.  After  obtaining  Goliath's  sword  of  Ahimelech, 
the  priest  at  Nob,  and  diverting  the  resentment  of  Achish,  at  Gath,  by 
feigning  himself  mad,  David  retired  to  the  cave  of  Adullum,  in  Judah, 
where  his  father's  family  came  to  him,  and  also  great  numbers  of  dis- 
tressed and  disaffected  people,  who  made  him  a  captain  over  them.  Be- 
cause Ahimelech,  the  priest,  gave  the  sword  of  Goliath  to  David,  Saul 
caused  him  to  be  killed,  with  all  his  family,  except  Abiathar,  his  son, 
who  escaped  to  David.  Driven  from  place  to  place  by  the  persevering 
pursuit  of  Saul,  David  several  times  hardly  escaped  falling  into  his 
hands  ;  but  twice  he  had  the  life  of  his  pursuer  in  his  power,  and  nobly 
spared  him. 

At  length  David,  with  his  two  wives,  Abigail  and  Abinoam,  whom 

he  had  recently  married,  and  his  numerous  followers,  took 

refuge 'with  refuge  at  Gath,  with  Achish,  king  of  the  Philistines.     Dur- 

„  *h?       ing  his  residence  at  Ziklag,  a  place  which  Achish  gave  him, 

Philistines.        °   .,.         i«       »  »  •         i  •  i  i    i  •  ji 

David  signalized  his  valour  against  the  Amalekites,  and  other 
idolatrous  nations,  pretending  to  Achish  on  his  return  that  his  enter- 
prises had  been  directed  against  Israel.  The  king  put  confidence  in 
him,  and  intended  to  have  his  aid  in  the  approaching  battle  with  the 
Israelites;  but  David  was  spared  the  trial  either  of  disobliging  his  pro- 
tector, or  of  fighting  against  his  own  brethren,  by  the  jealous  interposi- 
tion of  the  Philistine  princes,  who  feared  that  he  would  turn  against 
them  in  the  hour  of  battle.  Samuel  had  now  been  dead  two  years,  and 
his  anointed  son  of  Bethlehem  seemed  as  far  from  the  throne,  as  when 
he  was  first  anointed,  eight  years  before.  But  nothing  could  defeat  the 
predestined  elevation  of  David  to  the  throne  of  Israel  ;  nothing  could 

longer  protract  the  doom  and  downfall  of  Saul,  who  derived 
Witcdo°rf  Ea'from  the  Witch  of  Endor,  and  the  ghost  of  Samuel,  nothing 

but  the  most  dismaying  confirmation  of  his  foreboding  fears. 
The  Israelites  were  overcome  at  Gilboa,  by  the  Philistines ;  Jonathan 
was  killed  in  battle,  and  Saul,  wounded  and  despairing,  fell  upon  his 
own  sword.  David  lamented  Saul  and  Jonathan  in  a  song,  and  killed 
the  Amalekite,  who,  bringing  the  tidings  of  Saul's  death,  hoped  to 
recommend  himself  to  David's  favour,  by  pretending  that  he  despatched 
the  king. 

By  God's  direction,  David  went  immediately  to  Hebron, 

where  he  was  made  king  of  Judah,  and  reigned  seven  years ; 

while  Ishbosheth,  a  son  of  Saul,  set  up  by  Abner,  reigned 
over  the  other  tribes,  and  lived  at  Mahanaim,  east  of  Jordan.  During 
these  seven  years,  David's  power  continually  increased,  till  finally,  Ish- 
bosheth was  betrayed  by  Abner,  and  slain  by  his  own  captains.  After 
the  death  of  Ishbosheth,  David  was  acknowledged  king  of  the  whole 

land  of  Israel,  and  reigned  thirty-three  years  at  Jerusalem, 
Kand°"rae]abwnicl1  he  to°k  from  the  Jebusites,  who  seem  to  have  held,  till 

this  time,  the  strong  fortress  of  Zion.  Within  four  or  five 
years  from  this  time,  he  subdued  the  Philistines,  Amalekites,  Edomites, 
Moabites,  Midianites,  and  Syrians,  and  made  an  alliance  with  Toi, 

king  of  Hamath.     It  was  in  this  interval,  that  he  caused  the 

Ark  brought  ark  [0  foe  brought  from  Kirjath-jearim,  and  placed  in  a  taber- 

Jerusaiem.  nacle  purposely  prepared  for  it  at  Jerusalem.     Michal,  Saul's 

daughter,  who  had  been  restored  to  David  by  Abner,  derided 


38  OUTLINE     OP      HEBREW     HISTORY. 

the  king  for  dancing  before  the  ark,  and  was  for  that  offence  left  in 
neglect  by  her  husband.  David,  remembering  the  kindness  of  Jona- 
than, sent  for  his  son  Mephibosheth,  entertained  him  at  his  table,  and 
gave  him  Saul's  possessions. 

David  having  subdued  all  the  surrounding  nations,  but  the  Ammo- 
nites ;  finally  made  war  upon  them,  because  they  insulted  his  ambas- 
sadors :  and  Joab,  David's  captain,  overthrew  the  confederated  forces 
of  Ammonites  and  Syrians.  He  then  laid  siege  to  Kabbah,  the  capital 
of  Ammon,  whose  inhabitants  David  cruelly  tortured  after  the  city  was 
taken.  At  this  siege,  David  caused  Uriah  to  be  killed,  and  shortly 
after  married  Bathsheba,  Uriah's  widow,  in  the  twentieth  year  of  his 

reign,  2969.  Two  years  after,  Solomon  was  born,  the  second 
Solomon,  son  of  David  by  Bathsheba.  The  next  year  after  the  birth  of 

Solomon,  Amnon,  a  son  of  David,  provoked  the  mortal  en- 
mity of  his  half-brother  Absalom,  by  his  cruel  and  unnatural  treatment 
of  Tamar,  Absalom's  full  sister.  Two  years  afterward,  Absalom,  to 
avenge  his  sister  Tamar,  invited  Amnon  to  a  feast,  perfidiously  killed 
him,  and  fled  to  his  grandfather  Talmai,  king  of  Geshur,  where  he 
lived  three  years,  till  David  recalled  him  by  the  persuasion  of  Joab. 
David  did  not  admit  Absalom  into  his  presence  until  two  years  after  his 
return  to  Jerusalem.  During  the  next  two  years,  Absalom  artfully  and 

assiduously  studied  to  conciliate  the  favour  and  affection  of 
Abbemon!re  tne  people ;  then  going  to  Bethlehem,  under  a  pretence  of 

sacrificing,  he  collected  an  army,  by  the  advice  of  the  traitor 
Ahithophel,  rebelled  against  his  father,  drove  him  from  Jerusalem,  and 
pursued  him  over  Jordan.  Here  a  battle  took  place,  in  which  Absalom 
was  defeated  by  Joab,  who  pursued  and  despatched  the  rebel  son,  to 
the  great  grief  of  David,  and  contrary  to  his  express  commands.  Two 
years  before  his  death,  David's  people  were  visited  by  a  destructive  pes- 
tilence, inflicted  as  a  chastisement  for  his  sinful  vanity  in  numbering 
the  people  by  the  temptation  of  Satan. — See  1  Chronicles,  21st  chapter. 

In  the  last  year  of  David's  reign,  Adonijah,  one  of  his  sons, 
tempted  to°^  advantage  of  the  feeble  and  declining  state  of  his  father's 
usurpation,  health,  to  make  himself  king,  by  the  assistance  of  Joab,  and 

Abiathar,  the  priest ;  but  David  caused  Solomon  to  be  anoint- 
ed by  Nathan,  the  prophet,  and  Zadok,  a  priest  of  the  line  of  Eleazer. 
After  the  death  of  David,  Joab  and  Adonijah  were  put  to  death  by 
Solomon  ;  Abiathar  was  deposed,  and  Zadak  received  the  priesthood, 
which  seems  to  have  been  divided  between  them  during  the  reign  of 
David.  David  died,  aged  70,  in  2989.  He  committed  great  faults 
during  his  reign,  for  which  he  was  deeply  penitent. 

Solomon  transcended  all  the  kings  of  Israel  in   power, 
nwjfc      magnificence,  glory,  and  wisdom.     David  was  not  permitted 

to  build  the  temple  of  the  Lord,  because  he  was  a  man  of 
war  and  blood ;  but  Solomon  enjoyed  a  peaceful  reign  over  the  exten- 
sive dominions  left  him  by  his  father,  and  in  the  fourth  year  of  his 

reign  he  commenced  the  building  of  the  temple.     Hiram, 

3000     king  of  Tyre,  furnished  him  skilful  artificers,  and  the  cedars 

Thetempie    of  Lebanon      He  j^ 70,000  men  employed  to  bear  burthens, 

and  80,000  hewers  in  the  mountains,  besides  3,300  officers 
to  oversee  the  workmen.  The  length  of  the  temple  was  60  cubits, 


HISTORY    OP    THE    KINGS    OP    ISRAEL.  39 

its  breadth  20,  and  its  height  30.  It  was  finished  and  dedicated  with 
great  ceremony  in  the  eleventh  year  of  Solomon's  reign  in  3000. 
Solomon  also  built  two  magnificent  palaces,  one  for  himself,  and  an- 
other for  his  queen,  the  daughter  of  Pharaoh  king  of  Egypt.  He  im- 
posed heavy  burthens  on  his  people,  to  meet  his  immense  expenditures, 
but  he,  as  well  as  David,  derived  vast  riches  and  treasures  from  the 
traffic  of  the  Red  Sea,  where  they  possessed  a  port  and  a  fleet  after  the 
conquest  of  Edom.  Solomon  died  in  3029. 


History  of  the  Kings  of  Israel. 

KINGS  OF  ISRAEL. 

JEROBOAM.  AHAB.  ZACHIRIAH. 

NADAB.  AHAZIAH. 

JEHORAM.  SHALLTJM. 
BAASHA. 

ELAH.  JEHTT.  MENAHEM. 

—  JEHOAAZ.  PEKAHIAH. 

ZIMRI.  JOASH.  PEKAH. 

JEROBOAM  2d.  HOSEA. 
OMRI. 

The  kingdom  of  David  and  Solomon  included  all  the  twelve  tribes 

of  Israel,  and  most  of  the  adjoining  countries ;    but  God  declared  in 

the  time  of  Solomon  that  his  kingdom  should  be  divided,  and  that  only 

two  tribes  should  remain  faithful  to  his  son  Rehoboam.  Solo- 

Rehoboam,    mon's  &'m  jn  introducing  a  corrupt  and  idolatrous  worship  by 

KingofJu-  .  °  .    r  i      i     i  •       ,      i       K-    J 

dah.  the  influence  of  his  strange  wives,  provoked  this  declaration 

of  God's  judgment.  In  his  vain  presumption,  the  son  of 
Solomon  rejected  the  advice  of  the  old  men,  and  listening  to  the  young 
men,  spurned  the  humble  petition  of  his  subjects,  who  prayed  for  a 
reduction  of  the  heavy  taxes  imposed  by  his  father.  The 
3029  harsh  and  reproachful  answer  of  the  young  king  drove  into 
Reio  tribw'.'6  immediate  revolt  the  ten  northern  and  eastern  tribes,  which 
from  that  time  constituted  a  separate  kingdom,  called  Israel. 
The  two  tribes  of  Judah  and  Benjamin  remained  faithful  to  the  line 
of  David,  and  were  called  the  kingdom  of  Judah.  After  this  event  the 
kings  of  Syria  maintained  their  complete  independence,  and  often  made 
destructive  inroads  into  the  kingdom  of  Israel.  The  Ammonites  and 
Moabites  submitted  to  the  kings  of  Israel ;  but  the  Philistines  and 
Edomites  remained  subject  to  Rehoboam,  king  of  Judah.  The  boun- 
daries between  the  kingdoms  of  Judah  and  Israel  did  not  invariably 
remain  the  same,  but  occasionally  changed  with  the  vicissitudes  of 
power  incident  to  the  almost  incessant  wars  that  raged  between  the 
two  rival  nations.  There  is  reason  to  believe  that  Simeon  and  a  part 
of  Dan  were  early  incorporated  with  the  kingdom  of  Judah. 


40  HISTORY    OP    THE    KINGS     OP    ISRAEL. 

Jeroboam  was  an  officer  under  Solomon,  when  Ahijah  the 

Jeroboam      prophet  declared  to  him  God's  purpose  to  divide  the  king- 
King  of       •*,  j  T      i          i    •  j  i       i 
Israel.          dom,  and  Jeroboam  being  expressly  named  by  the  prophet  as 

the  future  king  of  the  ten  tribes,  was  obliged  to  flee  from 
the  presence  of  8olomon  into  Egypt,  whence  he  returned  after  the 
death  of  his  offended  king,  and  was  made  king  of  the  dismembered 
tribes.  The  history  of  the  kings  of  Israel  exhibits  a  uniformly  dis- 
gusting picture  of  wickedness  and  idolatry,  scarcely  exceeded  in  later 
times  by  the  degenerate  successors  of  Alexander  and  Augustus.  Jero- 
boam at  first  made  Shechem  his  capital,  which  he  rebuilt  258  years 
after  it  was  destroyed  byAbimelech;  but  he  afterwards  resided  at 
Tirzah.  To  prevent  his  people  from  going  to  Jerusalem  to  worship, 
he  set  up  two  golden  calves  for  them  to  serve;  one  at  Bethel, 
on  his  south  border,  the  other  at  Dan,  on  his  north  border. 
He  made  priests  of  the  lowest  of  the  people,  and  cast  off  the  Levites, 
who  all  flocked  to  Jerusalem,  and  strengthened  Rehoboam.  He  made 
altars,  groves,  and  higJi  places  for  idolatrous  worship,  and  impiously 
exercised  the  priest's  office  himself.  See  1  Kings,  chapters  xii. 
and  xiii. 

Nadab  Nadab,  the  son  and  successor  of  Jeroboam,  imitated  all  the 

perverse  and  idolatrous  practices  of  his  father.    After  a  short 
career  of  folly  and  wickedness,  he  was  cut  off  by  the  traitor 

Baasha.          _  ,     J  ..        . '.      .  .  /    . 

Baasha,  who,  having  killed  his  king,  usurped  the  vacant 
throne,  and  destroyed  the  whole  family  of  Jeroboam,  thereby  fulfilling 
the  prediction  of  Ahijah  the  prophet.  See  1  Kings,  chapters  xii.  and 
xiii.  Baasha  and  his  family,  by  following  all  the  flagitious  sins  of 
Jeroboam,  provoked  a  similar  prophecy,  and  experienced  the  same 
E  fate.  Elah,  the  son  of  Baasha,  was  killed  by  Zimri,  one  of  his 

captains,  who  also  destroyed  the  whole  family  of  Baasha  and 
Elah,  and  seized  the  reins  of  government;  by  which  was  fulfilled  the 
prophecy  of  Jehu.  Omri,  another  captain  of  Elah,  who  was  absent 

with  the  army,  hearing  that  Elah  was  killed,  and  Zimri,  his 

Zimri.  ,  * '  111-11 

murderer,  upon  the  throne,  returned  and  besieged  the  usurp- 
er in  Tirzah.     After  a  short  siege,  Zimri,  finding  that  his  rival  would 
prevail,  set  fire  to  the  palace,  and  perished  in  the  flames.     Omri  sup- 
ported his  pretensions  to  the  throne,  and  reigned  about  twelve 
years,  though  a  part  of  the  nation  followed  Tibni,  another 
competitor.     In  the  sixth  year  of  his  reign,  Omri  built  Samaria,  on  the 
borders  of  Ephraim  and  Manasseh,  and  made  his  new  city  the  perma- 
nent capital  of  the  kingdom. 

Ahab  Three  kings  of  Israel  descended  from  Omri :  Ahab,  Aha- 

ziah,  and  Jehoram.     Ahab  married  the  infamous  Jezebel, 
Jezebel  his    daughter  of  the  king  of  Tyre,  and  surpassed  all  the  other 
queen!      kings   of   Israel   in   idolatry,    corruption,   wickedness,    and 
cruelty.     By  the  influence  of  his  Tyrian  queen,  he  introduc- 
ed into   Israel  the  idolatrous  priests  and  altars,  and  the  false  gods  of 
Tyre.     Elijah  the  prophet,  having  denounced  a  grievous 
drought  and  famine,  fled  from  the  presence  and  pursuit  of 
Ahab:  but  after  concealing  himself  three  years  at  the  brook  Cherith, 
and  with  the  poor  woman  at  Zarephath,  he  returned  to  the  enraged 
king,  and  caused  him  to  assemble  all  Israel,  and  the  nine  hundred  and 


HISTORY     OF     THE     KINGS     OF     ISRAEL.  41 

fifty  false  prophets  of  Jezebel,  at  Mount  Carmel.  The  assembled  peo- 
ple, seeing  that  the  false  prophets  could  not  call  down  fire  from  heaven 
to  consume  their  sacrifices,  as  Elijah  did,  fell  upon  them  in  a  rage  and 
slew  them.  Then,  at  the  prayer  of  Elijah,  a  plentiful  shower  of  rain 
descended  upon  the  whole  land.  Elijah  having  soon  after  fled  into  the 
wilderness  from  the  fury  of  Jezebel,  was  commanded  by  God  to  return 
and  anoint  Elisha  for  his  successor. 

Ahab   was  twice  reduced  to  great  distress  by  Benhadadj 
lamaril     king  °^  Syria,  who  besieged  Samaria  with  immense  armies; 
but  God  gave  Israel  strength,  and  victory,  in  both  instances, 
and  they  slew  an  hundred  thousand  Syrians. 

Naboth,  of  Jezreel,  having  refused  to  sell  Ahab  his  vineyard,  Jeze- 
bel caused  him  to  be  stoned  to  death,  upon  the  accusation  of  false  wit- 
nesses. For  this  horrid  deed,  Elijah  appeared,  and  denounced  the 
utter  extinction  of  the  whole  family  of  Ahab. 

Trusting  to  the  false  prophets,  and  spurning  the  admonitions  of  Mi- 
caiah,  a  true  prophet,  Ahab,  accompanied  by  Jehoshaphat,  king  of 
Judah,  led  his  armies  against  the  king  of  Syria,  then  at  Ramoth-Gi- 
lead,  east  of  Jordan.  Notwithstanding  his  cowardly  precautions,  in 
leaving  off  his  royal  robes  when  the  hostile  armies  engaged,  "  a  cer* 
tain  man  drew  a  bow  at  a  venture,  and  killed  him." 

Ahaziah,  the  son  of  Ahab.  lying  dangerously  sick  of  a  fall, 
sent  to  consult  Baalzebub,  the  god  of  Ekron,  concerning  his 
recovery.  Elijah  met  the  messengers,  and  told  them  that  the  king  should 
surely  die.      Two  companies  of  fifty  men,  successively,  sent  bv  the 
king  to  take  Elijah,  were  consumed  by  fire  from  heaven;  but  the  cap- 
tain of  the  third  company,  entreating  for  his  life,  was  spared  by  the 
prophet,  who  voluntarily  went  with  him  to  the  king,  and  told  him  that 
he  must  die.     Ahaziah  was  succeeded  by  his  brother  Jeho- 
ram,  the  last  of  his  race  who  filled  the  throne  of  Israel.     It 
seems  to  have  been  soon  after  the  death  of  Ahaziah,  that  Elijah  was 
taken  up  to  heaven  in  a  chariot  of  fire,  leaving  his  mantle  and  his  pro- 
phetic office  to  Elisha.     See  in  2  Kings,   an  account  of  the 
anointing  of  Hazael  by  Elisha,  to  be  king  of  Syria,   instead 
of  Benhadad. 

See  in  %  Kings,  the  latter  part  of  the  eighth,  and  the  whole  of  the 
ninth  chapter,  ithe   account  of  a  joint  expedition  of  Jehoram,  king  of 
Israel,  and  Ahaziah,  king  of  Judah,  against  Hazael,  the  new  king  of 
Syria,  then  at  Ramoth-Gilead,  Jehoram  having  retired  from  the  army 
to  Jezreel  to  be  cured  of  a  wpund  that  he  had  received  in  battle,  was 
visited  there  soon  after  by  Ahaziah.     In  the  absence  of  the  two  kings 
from  the  army,  Jehu,  one  of  Jehoram's  captains,  was  anoint- 
ed1 king!"    ed  king  by  the  direction  of  Elisha,  and  being  acknowledged 
treacheroudy  jjy  tne  army    jle  proceeded  in  great  haste  to  Jezreel,  where 

kills  the  kings     J    i  .,i    j      L  ii      r       -i 

of  Judah  and  he  killed  the  two  kings,  and  destroyed  the  w.hole  family  of 
Israel.  A.hab,  according  to  the  prophecy  of  Elijah.  Wicked  Jeze- 
bel, immediately  after  the  death  of  her  son  Jehoram,  was  cast  out  of 
a  window  and  devoured  by  dogs.  Jehu  established  himself  on  the 
throne  of  Israel  by  destroying  all  the  family  of  Ahab,  and  all  the  priests 
of  Baal,  that  had  been  maintained  by  this  wicked  family.  But  Jehu 
practised  all  the  sins  of  Jeroboam  the  first.  During  the  reign  of  Jeho- 

(i 


42  HISTORY    OF     THE     KINGS     OF    JUDAH. 

ahaz,  the  son  of  Jehu,  Israel  suffered  greatly  from  the  inroads  of  Ha- 
zael,  king  of  Syria,  who  took  all  the  country  east  of  Jordan  ;  but  Joash, 
the  son  of  Jehoahaz,  recovered  what  his  father  had  lost,  and  vanquished 
Benhadad,  the  son  of  Hazael,  three  times.  Elisha,  in  his  dying  mo- 
ments, had  promised  Joash  these  three  victories.  Jeroboam  II.  the  son 
of  Joash,  pursued  his  father's  success,  and  even  took  Hamath,  in  Syria, 
and  Damascus,  the  capital.  Zechariah,  the  last  of  the  family  of  Jehu, 
was  killed  by  Shallum.  who,  after  reigning  one  month,  Avas,  in  his  turn, 
killed  by  Menahem.  Menahem  exacted  large  sums  of  money  from 
.  his  subjects,  to  purchase  the  forbearance  and  retreat  of  Pul, 
vasionintiie  king  of  Assyria,  who  invaded  Israel.  Pekahiah,  the  son  of 
ahem°fMen~  Menahem,  was  killed  by  Pekah,  one  of  his  captains.  Pekah 
was  killed  by  Hosea,  with  whom  the  kingdom  ended.  The 
particulars  of  the  reigns  of  Pekah  and  Hosea,  will  be  related  in  con- 
nexion with  the  history  of  Judah. 


History  of  the  Kings  of  Judah. 

KINGS  OF  JUDAH. 

REHOBOAM.  A  THAU  AH.  MANASSEH. 

AMON. 

ABIJAH.  JOASH. 

ASA.  AMAZIAH.  JOSIAH. 

—  AZARIAH.  JEHOAHAS. 

JEHOSHAPHAT.  JOTHAM.  JOHOIAKIM. 

JEHORAM.  —  JEHOIAKIN. 

AHAZ.  — 

AHAZIAH.  HEZEKIAH.  ZEDEKIAH. 

The  people  of  Israel  were  afflicted  with  great  national  calamities  for 
the  sins  of  David  and  Solomon ;  but  those  eminent  personages  redeem- 
ed their  characters  and  their  people,  by  sincere  penitence  and  general 
piety.  Unfortunately,  the  majority  of  their  royal  descendants  were 
gross  and  impenitent  transgressors,  who  brought  a  long  train  of  woe 
upon  their  people,  and  finally  drew  down  ruin  and  captivity  upon  their 
devoted  country.  Asa,  Jehoshaphat,  Hezekiah,  and  Josiah,  sustain 
exalted  characters  in  the  sacred  annals;  but  their  pious  efforts  were 
exerted  in  vain  to  reform  the  abuses  and  corruptions  which  nearly  all 
the  other  descendants  of  Solomon  openly  practised  and  encouraged. 
Rehoboam  not  only  imitated  his  father's  sins,  but  shamefully  multi- 
plied the  objects  and  forms  of  idolatry.  To  punish  him,  and  his  infatu- 
ated people,  God  permitted  Shishak,  (by  some  supposed  to  be 
piunderTthe  l^e  celeDrated  Sesostris,)  king  of  Egypt,  to  invade  the  land 

temple,  of  Judah,  break  into  Jerusalem,  and  plunder  the  holy  temple. 
Abijah,  the  son  of  Rehoboam,  had  signal  success  in  his  war 
with  Jeroboam,  king  of  Israel ;  but  he  imitated,  and  even  exceeded,  the 
idolatry  of  his  father. 


HISTORY     OF     THE     KINGS     OF     JUDAH.  43 

Asa  was  a  pious  and  good  king;  he  abolished  many  cor- 
king Asa.  rupt  practices;  and,  trusting  in  the  Lord,  he  repulsed  an  im- 
mense army  of  Ethiopians.  But  in  a  later  period  of  his  reign, 
he  made  an  unhallowed  alliance  with  Benhadad,  king  of  Syria,  against 
Baasha,  king  of  Israel,  instead  of  seeking  the  protection  of  the  Lord. 
Jehoshaphat  surpassed  his  father,  Asa,  in  his  measures  of  reform.  He 
caused  the  laws  of  Moses  to  be  taught  throughout  his  dominions,  and 
made  his  authority  to  be  respected,  both  at  home  and  abroad.  But 
he  was  reproved  for  joining  Ahab  in  his  fatal  expedition  to  Ramoth- 
Gilead;  he  lost  his  fleet  on  the  Red  Sea,  for  admitting  Ahab's  son, 
Ahaziah,  to  have  a  concern  in  it;  and  he  improperly  suffered  his  son 
Jehoram  to  marry  Athaliah,  the  daughter  of  wicked  Ahab  and  Jezebel. 
Jehoram,  on  his  father's  death,  put  all  his  own  brothers  and  several 
other  princes  to  death.  By  the  influence  of  his  infamous  queen,  Atha- 
liah, he  practised  every  species  of  cruelty  and  abomination.  He  was 
punished  by  the  revolt  of  Edom,  and  the  consequent  loss  of 
Edom.  the  port  and  traffic  on  the  Red  Sea.  Fie  spent  the  last  two 
years  of  his  life  in  great  torment,  and  at  last  literally  fell  to 
pieces,  and  died  from  the  effects  of  painful  and  protracted  disease.  An 
account  has  already  been  given  of  the  death  of  Jehoram's  son,  Aha- 
ziah, who  was  killed  by  Jehu.  Queen  Athaliah  survived  her  husband, 
Jehoram,  and  her  son,  Ahaziah,  ascended  the  vacant  throne  on  the 
death  of  the  latter,  and  murdered  all  the  sons  of  Ahaziah,  except  Joash, 
an  infant,  who  was  saved  by  the  high  priest,  and  concealed  in  the  tem- 
ple six  years.  At  the  end  of  that  time,  the  high  priest  anointed  Joash, 
aged  seven  years,  and  presented  him  to  the  people,  who,  attracting 
Athaliah  to  the  temple  by  their  shouts,  fell  upon  her,  and  slew  her. 
The  reader  is  referred  to  Chronicles  for  the  short  history,  and  mixed 
or  indifferent  characters  of  the  four  next  kings. 

Early  in  the  reign  of  Ahaz,  the  land  of  Judah  was  invad- 
,Ahaz. b"y*  ed  and  ravaged  by  Syrians,  Israelites,  Philistines,  and  Am- 

the  aid  of  tlife  .  TI-J-  •    i      i  <  •  TIT  i-    <• 

Assyrian  monites.  In  HIS  distress,  the  wicked  king  applied  lor  relief 
tii^invldhTs  to  Tiglath-Pileser,  king  of  Assyria,  whose  aid  he  ignobly 
Syrians  with  and  impiously  purchased  with  the  sacred  treasures  of  the 
5aCsures.rea  holy  temple.  The  Assyrian  monarch  first  marched  his  ar- 
mies into  Syria,  took  Damascus,  the  capital,  slew  Rezin 
the  king,  sent  the  people  captive  into  Assyria,  and  put  an  end  to  the 
kingdom  of  Syria.  He  then  overrun  the  four  northern  and  three  east- 
ern tribes  of  Israel,  and  sent  the  people  into  captivity.  Hosea,  who 
murdered  and  succeeded  Pekah  in  Israel,  submitted  for  a  while  to 
Shalmanezer,  the  son  of  Tiglath-Pileser;  but  at  length,  impatient  of 
tribute  and  dependence,  he  entered  into  an  alliance  with  So,  or  Sabacon, 
king  of  Egypt,  and  thus  completed  the  ruin  of  his  little  kingdom, 
which  had  already  been  reduced  to  two  tribes,  in  the  time  of  Pekah. 
To  punish  Hosea  for  his  defection,  Shalmanezer  entered  his  kingdom 
with  an  army,  and  besieged  Samaria,  the  capital.  After  a  siege  of 
three  years,  Shalmanezer  took  the  city,  sent  all  the  people 
3283  ieft  by  Tiglath-Pileser  into  captivity  beyond  the  Euphrates, 

F  tivity.P    and  repeopled  the  country  with  Assyrians.     This  is  the  com- 
pletion of  what  is  called  the  first  captivity,  or  captivity  of  the 
len  tribes,  in  3283. 


44  HISTORY     OF     THE     KINGS     OP    JUDAH. 

While  Shalmanezer  was  prosecuting-  the  siege  of  Samaria, 
The  good   Hezekiah,  the  worthy  son  of  wicked  Ahaz,  was  employed  in 
Hezekiah.   reforming  the  religion,  and  improving  the  state  of  his  king- 
dom ;  and  during  his  whole  reign,   the  Assyrian  monarch 
was  too  much  occupied  with  other  projects  to  disturb  these  pious  and 
patriotic  labours.     It  was  reserved  for  the  wild  and  furious  Sennache- 
rib to  interrupt  for  a  while  the  tranquillity  of  Judah,  and  by  outrages 
and  blasphemies,  to  provoke  the  vengeance  of  heaven  upon  himself  and 
his  devoted  army.     AH  the  busy  preparations  and  precautions  of  He- 
zekiah,  seemed  impotent  and  vain ;   the  vast  sums  that  he  had  paid 
to  the  greedy  invader  failed  to  satisfy  him ;    the  expected  relief  from 
the  Ethiopian  Tirhahah,  (afterward  king  of  Egypt)  produced  nothing 
but  disappointment:  but  when  all  seemed  lost,  the  promises  and  pro- 
phecies of  Isaiah  were  fulfilled  by  a  single  blow  of  the  destroying  an- 
gel, which  killed  a  hundred  and  eighty-five  thousand  of  the 
of^ranache-  Assyrian  army,  and  left  Sennacherib  to  return  home,  covered 
rib.  with  shame  and  confusion,  where  he  was  assassinated  by  his 

own  sons.  It  is  necessary  to  read  Isaiah,  in  addition  to 
Kings  and  Chronicles,  to  get  a  complete  account  of  Ahaz  and  Heze- 
kiah. 

Could  Hezekiah  have  foreseen  the  infatuation  of  future  kings,  and 
the  early  depravity  and  disgraceful  captivity  of  his  son  Manasseh,  he 
might  have  forgotten  to  deplore  the  misdeeds  of  a  father,  in  the  over- 
whelming prospect  of  future  shame  and  misfortune.  After  the  cap- 
tivity of  Manasseh,  by  the  Assyrian  Esarhaddon,  Judah  seems  to  have 
been  dependent  on  the  Assyrian,  or  Babylonish  kings,  till  the  final 
destruction  of  Jerusalem.  Amon  was  a  wicked  and  idolatrous  prince, 
but  his  son  Josiah  laboured  with  great  zeal  to  root  out  idolatry,  and 
restore  the  purity  of  religious  worship.  In  the  last  year  of  his  life, 
Josiah  went  out  to  oppose  Pharaoh  Necho,  king  of  Egypt,  who  was 
passing  through  his  territories  against  the  king  of  Babylon.  In  the 
battle  that  took  place,  the  good  king  was  killed  by  an  archer.  On  the 
death  of  Josiah,  the  people  made  Jehoahaz,  his  youngest  son,  king. 
But  when  Pharaoh  Necho  returned  from  the  Euphrates,  he  deposed 
Jehoahaz,  after  he  had  reigned  three  months,  and  set  up  Jehoiakim, 
Jeremiah.  Josiah's  eldest  son,  for  king.  Jeremiah,  who  began  to  pro- 
phesy in  the  time  of  Josiah,  in  vain  denounced  the  wicked 
course  of  all  the  kings  that  reigned  in  Judah  after  that  pious  monarch, 
For  his  bold  admonitions  he  was  frequently  arraigned,  and  for  a  long- 
time kept  shut  up  in  prison. 

Two  years  before  his  death,  Nabopolassar,  king  of  Babylon,   sent 
his  son  and  associate  Nebuchadnezzar,  with   an  army  into  Judah. 
Nebuchad-  While  besieging  Jerusalem,  the  Babylonish  king  took  Je- 
nezzar exacu  hoiakim  prisoner,  and  bound  him  in  fetters,  with  an  intention 
trjehoeiakftoT to.  carry  ^m  to  Babylon,  but  restored  him  to  the  throne  on 
his  humbling  himself,  and  submitting  to  tribute.    Nebuchad- 
nezzar, on   this  occasion,  caused  a  selection  to  be  made  of  royal  and 
noble  youths,  of  the  fairest  countenance  and  brightest  parts,  and  sent 
Daniel.        them  to  Babylon.     Daniel  was  among  these  captives ;  and 
sw  captivity.  here  commenced  the  second  captivity,  in  3398. 


HISTORY     OF     THE     KINGS     OP     JUDAH.  45 

After  submitting  several  years,  Jehoiakim  rebelled  against 
Rebels. m   Nebuchadnezzar,  who  immediately  sent  his  armies  to  reduce 
him  to  obedience.     The  war  had  been  conducted  about  three 
years,  when  Jehoiachin,  or  Jechoniah,  became  king  by  the  death  of  his 
father.     The  new  king,  after  reigning  three  months,  came  out  of  the 
city,  accompanied  by  his  mother  and  his  princes,  and  surrendered  to 
Zedekiah   ^e  ^nS  °f  Babylon,  wjio  made  Zedekiah,  a  son  of  Josiah, 
made  king,  king,  and  sent  a  great  number  of  people  captive  to  Babylon. 
Ezekiei.       Ezekiel,  who  was  one  of  the  captives,  always  dates  from  the 
captivity  of  Jehoiachin.     Jeremiah,  knowing  that  the  Jews  must  re- 
main in  captivity  seventy  years,  wrote  a  letter  to  the  Jews  at  Babylon, 
admonishing  them  not  to  believe  the  dreams  of  the  lying  prophets,  who 
foretold  the  speedy  restoration  of  Jehoiaehin  and  his  captive  people; 
and  the  prophet  enjoined  them  to  settle  down  quietly  till  the  expiration 
of  the  seventy  years.     He  also  exhorted  Zedekiah  and  the  neighbour- 
ing princes,  to  submit  to  the  king  of  Babylon,  and  threatened  them 
with  terrible  calamities  if  they  rebelled. 

In  the  ninth  year  of  Zedekiah,  the  king  of  Babylon  learning  that  he 

had  entered  into  a  league  with  the  king  of  Egypt,  advanced  with  a 

great  army  into  Judah,  took  many  cities,  and  besieged  Jeru- 

Jerysalem    °   ,  -f  •    ,  •,      ,  .  J  .,  m^    '••  r 

besieged,  salem.  Jeremiah  was  shut  up  in  the  court  of  the  prison  for 
advising  the  king  and  people  to  submit;  yet  he  persisted  in 
giving  the  same  advice,  even  after  Nebuchadnezzar  had  raised  the 
siege  to  defend  himself  against  the  king  of  Egypt;  and  the  prophet 
boldly  declared  that  the  king  of  Egypt  would  afford  no  relief,  and  that 
the  king  of  Babylon  would  certainly  return  to  the  siege,  and  take  both 
the  city  and  the  king.  King  Zedekiah  frequently  consulted  this  pro- 
phet while  in  prison  concerning  the  event  of  the  war,  and  uniformly 
received  for  answer,  that  he  must  submit  to  the  king  of  Babylon,  or 
abide  the  most  awful  consequences  of  his  obstinacy.  Finally,  Zede- 
kiah seeing  that  the  Babylonians  had  made  a  breach  in  the  wall  of  the 
city,  fled  in  the  night,  but  was  pursued  by  the  enemy,  overtaken  in  the 
plains  of  Jericho,  and  carried  to  Nebuchadnezzar,  then  at  Riblah,  in 
Syria.  There,  after  seeing  all  his  sons  and  all  his  princes  killed,  his  eyes 

Zedekiah  were  Put  out'  an(^  ^e  was  sent  to  Babylon,  where  he  shortly 
dies  at  Baby-  after  died.  The  Babylonians  having  entered  Jerusalem,  and 
broken  down  the  walls,  proceeded  to  burn  the  temple,  the 
3416  king's  palace,  and  all  the  houses  in  the  city.  All  the  people 
ofWJera!ia"  were  carried  captive  to  Babylon,  except  the  poorer  sort,  who 
com'  ?"if  were  left  to  cultivate  the  vineyards  and  the  fields,  under  the 
of  the  2nd  direction  of  Gedaliah,  a  Jew,  whom  Nebuchadnezzar  appoint- 
capiivity.  e(j  g0vernor  Of  tne  \an^  Jeremiah  chose  to  remain  in  his 
own  country,  though  he  had  the  offer  of  enjoying  at  Babylon  the 
friendship  of  Nebuchadnezzar.  Gedaliah  having  been  treacherously 
killed  shortly  after  his  appointment,  the  people  fled  into  Egypt,  fearing 
the  resentment  of  the  king  of  Babylon.  Jeremiah  assured  them  that 
they  would  suffer  no  injury  if  they  remained  where  they  were ;  but 
if  they  went  to  Egypt,  the  sword  which  they  feared  would  overtake 
them  there ;  for  he  foresaw  and  foretold  that  Nebuchadnezzar  would 
conquer  Egypt.  The  people  compelled  the  prophet,  contrary  to  his 
wishes,  to  accompany  them  into  Egypt,  where  it  is  known  that  he  re» 


46  HISTORY     OP     EGYPT. 

mained  a  considerable  time;  but  the  time  and  place  of  his  death  are 
not  known.  The  destruction  of  Jerusalem,  and  desolation  of  Judah, 
in  3410,  was  the  completion  of  the  second  captivity;  but  the  com- 
mencement of  the  seventy  years  captivity  was  in  3398,  when  Daniel 
was  taken. 

The  rich  and  commercial  city  of  Tyre,  had  in  early  times  main- 
tained the  most  friendly  relations  with  David  and  Solomon  ;  but  in  the 
declining  days  of  the  Jewish  kingdom,  the  Tyrians  exulted  over  the 
calamities  of  God's  people,  and  thereby  ensured  those  terrible  denunci- 
ations proclaimed  by  the  prophet  Ezekiel,  and  executed  by  Nebuchad- 
nezzar. But  the  reduction  of  Tyre  cost  the  king  of  Babylon  the  per- 
severing efforts  of  thirteen  years;  and  when  at  last  the  greedy  Baby- 
lonians entered  the  place — behold!  a  new  city  grown  up  on  an  island, 
half  a  mile  distant  from  the  shore,  to  which  the  people  had  removed 
Avith  their  effects,  leaving  the  conquerors  to  wreak  their  vengeance  on 
empty  walls.  But  this  wretched  pay  for  men  whose  "  every  head  was 
bald,  and  every  shoulder  peeled,"  was  soon  made  good  by  a  successful 
expedition  into  Egypt,  which  was  overrun,  wasted,  and  plundered,  by 
the  armies  of  Nebuchadnezzar,  as  had  been  prophecied  by  Jeremiah 
and  Ezekiel.  For  further  particulars  relating  to  Nebuchadnezzar,  the 
reader  is  referred  to  Kings,  Chronicles,  Jeremiah,  Ezekiel,  and  Dan- 
iel. On  his  death  his  son,  Evil  Merodach,  released  king  Jehoiachin 
from  prison,  and  paid  him  great  respect,  as  head  of  the  captivity,  and 
nominal  prince  of  the  Jews  at  Babylon. 


History  of  Egypt  to  JIM.  3500. 

EGYPT. 

IN  Egypt  the  wonderful  structures  raised  by  human  art  and  ser- 
vile hands,  attest  the  early  power  and  despotism,  as  well  as  the  empty 
vanity  of  its  kings  ;  and  these  towering  wonders,  no  less  than  the  num- 
ber and  extent  of  its  cities,  proclaim  the  immensity  of  its  population,  and 
strongly  incline  us  to  lament  the  obscurity  of  its  early  history.  No  re- 
solution can  overcome  the  utter  aversion  of  the  mind  to  the  dry  and 
barren  chronicles  of  this  wonderful  country.  We  are  not  easily  recon- 
ciled to  names  and  sounds  that  grate  harshly  on  the  ear,  even  when 
they  represent  objects  of  interest ;  and  this  difficulty  is  increased  in  ten- 
fold proportion,  when  these  barbarous  and  uncouth  names  denote  in- 
significant individuals,  or  persons  whose  history  is  uncertain  or 
unknown.  A  single  glance  at  the  long  list  of  one  hundred  and  thirty- 
nine  pretended  kings  of  Egypt,  is  sufficient  to  dishearten  the  most  re- 
solute learner,  who  has  any  other  object  than  to  try  his  organic  skill 
in  uttering  strange  and  awkward  combinations  of  sounds.  The  name 
and  fame  of  Sesostris,  might  afford  a  pleasing  exception,  if  historians 
could  determine  within  five  hundred  years  when  that  renowned  con- 
queror broke  loose  from  Egypt,  overrun  Asia  and  Europe,  and  even 
marched  triumphantly  over  the  wide  domain  of  some  ancient  Assyrian 
lord. 


HISTORY     OF     EGYPT.  47 

From  the  earliest  ages  there  had  been  four  kingdoms  in  Egypt,  viz: 
Heliopolis  or  Lower  Egypt,  Thebes  or  Upper  Egypt,  and  This  and 
Memphis  between  them,  till,  in  2320,  Nitocris,  queen  of  Memphis, 
united  This  and  Thebes  to  her  dominions. 

Profane  historians  tell  us,  that  about  fifteen  years  before  the  death 
of  Joseph,  the  Shepherd  kings  —  adventurers  from  Arabia — con- 
quered Heliopolis,  or  Lower  Egypt,  and  reigned  at  Tanis,  till  the 
race  was  expelled,  2784.  The  Old  Testament  gives  the  history  of 
Egypt,  only  so  far  as  it  is  connected  with  the  Jewish  history.  After 
the  departure  of  the  Israelites  from  Egypt,  they  appear  to 

3000     have  held  little  intercourse  with  that  country,  till  the  reign  of 
Solomon.     From  this  period  there  is  some  slight  connexion 
between  the  histories  of  the  two  countries,  and  some  notice  is  taken 
of  Egyptian  affairs  in  the  Scriptures. 

From  Psammetichus  to  Alexander,  three  hundred  years,  we  obtain 

considerable  information  from  the  Jewish  writers.     This  is  the  time 

when  the  swords  of  Egypt  and  Assyria  clashed  over  the  heads  of  the 

Israelites.  During  the  reign  of  Apries,(the  Pharaoh  Hophrah 

3400     of  Scripture,)  extended  plans  of  conquest  were  formed,  partly 
Hophrah.   against  Asia,  partly  against  Gyrene,  in  Africa.     The  event, 
proving  unsuccessful,  occasioned  a  rebellion  among  the  Egyp- 
tians, who  were  generally  opposed  to  foreign  wars.     A  civil  war 
ensued,  in  which  Apries  loses  his  throne  and  life;  and  with  him,  the 
dynasty  of  Psammetichus  ended. 

There  was  much  intercourse  between  the  Greeks  and  the  Egyptians 
in  this  age ;  many  of  the  former  settled  in  Egypt ;  many  visited  it  as 
travellers — among  whom  were  Pythagoras  and  Herodotus.  Egypt  is 
full  of  wonders  when  authentic  history  commences — wonders  of  me- 
chanic arts,  monuments  of  labour,  ingenuity,  and  expense.  Who  exe- 
cuted them,  no  one  can  tell. 

The  world  is  full  of  disputes  concerning  the  literature  of  Egypt.  It 
had  no  learning  in  the  common  sense  of  the  word  ;  no  books  ;  no  authors, 
not  even  scraps  for  Pythagoras  and  Herodotus  to  examine;  no  history, 
except  the  juggling  fables  made  up  by  their  priests,  who  could  not  read 
the  inscriptions  on  their  own  pyramids  and  temples.  Herodotus  tries 
to  believe  all,  and  make  something  out  of  his  visit,  but  it  amounts  to 
little. 

3478  Egypt  was  conquered  by  Cambyses,  3478,  and  remained 
cambyaes.  subject  to  Persia  at  3500. 


KINGS  OF  ASSYRIA. 

PTTL/  SENNACHERIB. 

SARDANAPALUS.  ESARHADDON. 

TlGLATH-PlLESER.  NEBUCHADNEZZAR,   1st. 

SHALMANEZER.  SARACUS. 

KINGS  OF  BABYLON. 

NABOPOJ.ASSAR,  EVIL  MERODACH, 

NEBUCHADNEZZAR,  BELSHAZZAR. 


48  HISTORY     OP     EGYPT. 


General  remarks  relating  to  the  Assyrian  Empire. 

Profane  historians  usually  attribute  a  great  extent  and  duration  to 

the  first  Assyrian  Empire,  of  which  Sardanapalus  is  said  to  have  been 

the  last  king.     Some  authors  have  condescended  to  offer  a  list  of  the 

names  of  about  forty  mute  monarchs  ;  whose  story,  if  they  ever  lived  or 

reigned,  has  not   been  told.     In  relation  to  this  subject,  we 

Foundation  may  remark,  that  authentic  history  ascertains  the  early  ex- 

antheitapire  istence  of  a   great  empire,  in  the  west  of  Asia,  which  had 

uncertain.      fjrst  Nineveh   for  its  capital,  and  afterward  Babylon  ;    and 

which  was  finally  overthrown  by  Cyrus,  the  Persian.     Of 

the  commencement,  duration,  extent,  or  power,  of  the  first  Assyrian 

Empire,  we  have  no  authentic  records  to  inform  us.      Some  make 

Nimrod,  others  Belus,  and  others  again  Ninus,  the  founder  of  this 

empire  ;    but  they  differ  widely  in  fixing  the  date  of  its  foundation.     It 

is  vain  to  seek  either  for  the  founder,  or  the  time  of  its  foundation. 

It  is  reasonable  to  suppose,  that  there  were  many  petty  kingdoms, 

but  no  great  consolidated  empire  in  the  west  of  Asia,  till  after  the  time 

of  David  and  Solomon  ;  perhaps  not  till  the  time  of  Tiglath- 

Limitedin  pijeser,  and  his  successors.     Yet  historians  vainly  attribute 

extent  before  _.  ...  •      .  . 

the  time  of  to  INinus  and  Semiramis  vast  power,  immense  armies,  and 
tomon.&S°  distant  conquests;  and  this  was  before  the  time  of  Abraham, 
according  to  their  chronology,  and  not  four  centuries  after  the 
flood.  Before  we  ascribe  a  vast  population  to  the  countries  about  the 
Euphrates,  at  so  early  a  period,  we  should  recollect  that  those  countries 
must  have  been  continually  drained  to  people  other  regions.  There 
were  cities  in  the  time  of  Abraham,  but  those  cities  were  small ;  there 
were  kingdoms,  but  those  kingdoms  were  insignificant.  We  read  in 
Genesis,  that  four  eastern  kings  advanced  against  the  petty  kings  of 
Canaan,  and  overthrew  them ;  but  Abraham,  with  his  servants,  and  a 
few  neighbours,  pursued  and  vanquished  the  four  eastern  kings  in  their 
retreat. 

It  is  evident,  from  the  histories  of  Abraham,  Isaac,  and  Jacob,  that 
people  were  thinly  scattered  over  the  western  regions  of  Asia  in  their 
time.  The  power  of  David  and  Solomon  probably  exceeded  that  of 
any  king  that  had  ever  reigned  before  in  any  of  the  countries  of  Asia. 
The  Israelites  often  bowed  down  under  the  oppression  of  petty  neigh- 
bours ;  but  so  far  from  having  been  disturbed  by  any  great  neighbour- 
ing monarchy,  they  never  had  occasion  even  to  mention  such  a  one  in 
their  annals,  till  about  3250. 

Such  as  would  mount  high  up  the  stream  of  time  in  search  of  won- 
ders, may  find  ample  scope  for  their  imaginations  in  the  thirteen  or 
fourteen  centuries,  attributed  to  the  duration  of  this. fabulous  empire. 
Happily  but  few  fables  have  as  yet  been  invented  for  this  dark  inter- 
val, though  a  long  list  of  insignificant  names  have  been  found  or  in- 
vented for  a  race  of  real  or  supposed  kings.  Commencing  in  the 
eighteenth,  nineteenth,  or  twentieth  century  after  the  creation,  as  choice 
or  caprice  directs,  the  imagination  may  roam  unclogged  by  tiresome 
realities,  over  a  spacious  wilderness  of  twelve,  thirteen,  or  fourteen  cen- 
turies. Without  any  new  effort  of  imagination,  the  actual  or  sup- 


HISTORY     OPASSYRIA.  49 

Semiramisd  Pose(^  conquest  of  the  Assyrian  Ninus,  and  the  more  brilliant 
exploits  of  Semiramis,  his  renowned  queen  and  successor, 
might  for  a  moment  dispel  the  gloom  of  silence  and  solitude,  and  shed 
a  transient  lustre  over  this  dreary  waste.  The  immense  cities  which 
these  two  celebrated  monarchs  are  said  to  have  built,  embellished,  or 
enlarged,  might  cheer  the  dull  obscure  age  whose  annals  have  not 
reached  us,  and  beautify  a  region  just  desolated  by  a  destroying  deluge, 
and  continually  drained  to  supply  population  to  distant  countries.  The 
vast  armies  and  conquering  hosts  which  our  hero  and  heroine  con- 
ducted to  the  borders  of  Ethiopia,  or  beyond  the  remote  banks  of  the 
Indus,  gloriously  illustrate  the  valour  of  Abraham,  who,  with  his  own 
household,  vanquished  the  confederated  forces  of  the  kings  of  Assyria, 
Chaldea,  Persia,  &c.;  and  this  was  after  the  supposed  time  of  Ninus 
and  his  valiant  queen. 

After  taking  leave  of  Ninus  and  Semiramis,  we  may  smile  at  the 
sullen  silence  of  the  forty  kings  of  Ctesias  or  Eusebius,  distributed 
through  twelve  centuries,  and  whose  empty  names  form  the  barren  his- 
tory of  their  empire ;  but  a  generous  feast  of  fiction  awaits  us  in  the 
palace  of  his  most  effeminate  and  degenerate  majesty  Sarda- 
sardanapaius.  napalus,  who,  we  are  told,  spun  at  the  distaff  with  his  women ; 
and  finally,  in  a  fit  of  despair,  consumed  himself  and  all  his 
spinning  sisters  in  the  flames  of  his  palace;  thus  nobly  spinning  out 
his  days  and  his  race,  to  escape  a  more  cruel  fate  from  the  hand  of 
an  enemy,  who  beset  his  capital,  and  dismembered  his  kingdom.  After 
this  catastrophe  our  history  may  assume  a  graver  tone. 

Though  it  will  still  be  impossible  to  separate  fiction  from  facts,  or 
ascertain  the  precise  dates  of  real  transactions,  yet,  from  the 

3257  commencement  of  Tiglath-Pileser,  in  3257,  the  grand  revolu- 
Facts  better  tion  of  empire  can  be  traced  ;  and  these  revolutions  assume 

ascertained.          .    ,  r      -,  .  ^  ,        ,        .       , 

an  interest  and  importance  that  cannot  be  despised. 
We  will  forbear  attempting  to  decide  which  of  the  two,  Pul  or  Sar- 
danapalus,  was  the  immediate  predecessor  of  Tiglath-Pileser,  till  the 
learned  can  determine  whether  Pul  was  the  father  or  son  of 
^8'ath-Piie-  gardanapalus,  or  whether  he  was  in  fact  any  way  related  to 
posed  found-  that  ill-fated  monarch,  since  some  contend  that  he  was  the 
%£S?*m  founder  of  the   new  dynasty,  and   the   father   of  Tiglath- 
Pileser. 

If  Babylon  made  a  part  of  the  ancient  Assyrian  Empire, 
of16  Babdkm  ^  was  dismembered  at  the  death  of  Sardanapalus  ;  or,  at  any 
severed  from  rate,  before  the  accession  of  Tiglath-Pileser  to  the  throne   of 
Emptre.yria"  Nineveh ;  for  it  constituted  a   separate  kingdom  till  3324, 
when  Esarhaddon  added  it  to  the  Assyrian  Empire.     The 
kingdom  of  Babylon,  just  noticed,  must  be  carefully  distinguished  from 
the  Babylonish  empire,  afterward   established  by  Nabopolassar,  who 
destroyed  Nineveh,  and  reigned  at  Babylon.     The  destroyer  of  Sarda- 
napalus, and  of  the  ancient  Assyrian  Empire,  (if  we  believe  the  lament- 
able tale,)  might  or  might  not  have  been  Arbaces,  a  Mede:    and  that 
Arbaces  might  or  might  not  have  been  the  Tiglath-Pileser  mentioned 
in  the  sacred  history.     We  cannot  pronounce  with  any  con- 
3257     fidence,  that  Media  and  Persia  either  did  or  did  not  belong 
sia  tismem-  to  the  ancient  Assyrian  Empire  :  if  they  did,  they  were  pro- 

7 


50  HISTORY     OF     PERSIA. 

bered  from  bably  dismembered  about  3257,  as  represented  on  the  chart ; 
though  Prideaux  dates  the  separation  later,  in  the  time  of 
Syria  and  is-  Sennacherib.  The  conquest  of  Syria  and  Israel,  by  Tiglath- 
rae  cc  ,r  pjjeger  &ncj  ^js  son  shalmanezer,  made  some  amends  for  the 
Also,  Baby-  loss  of  Media  :  the  conquest  of  Babylon,  by  Esarhaddon,  and 
ion,  (3324,)  &  the  subsequent  conquest  of  Judah  and  other  countries,  by 

the  kingdom          ,  ,          .       ,     .  •        T\        •     . 

of     Judah,  Nebuchadnezzar  the  second,  raised  the  Assyrian  Empire  to 

great  power  and  splendour. 

The  kings  of  Media  were  perpetually  hostile  to  the  Assyrian  kings  ; 
but  the  accounts  given  by  different  authors  of  wars  between  these 
two  nations,  are  so 'various  and  contradictory,  that  the  reader  of  history 
can  derive  but  little  satisfaction  from  the  perusal  of  detailed  accounts. 
It  is  evident  that  both  parties  made  great  acquisitions  of  territory  at 
the  expense  of  the  surrounding  nations,  and  that  the  whole  of  Western 
Asia  was  divided  between  them  when  Cyrus  commenced  his  career  of 
conquest.  It  is  believed  that  Cyaxares  the  first  assisted  Nabopo- 
lassar  in  his  revolt  against  Saracus,  the  last  king  who  reigned  at 
Nineveh,  and  that  both  Nineveh  and  Saracus  were  destroyed  by  the 
joint  efforts  of  Cyaxares  and  Nabopolassar.  Nabopolassar  was  a  Ba- 
bylonian by  birth,  and  governor  of  Babylon,  under  Saracus ;  on  the 

destruction  of  Nineveh,  he  became  king,  in  the  place  of  Sa- 
NinBeJoeyedde"  racus'  and  establisned  tne  Babylonish  Empire.  He  made 

Babylon  the  seat  of  empire ;  and,  from  the  commencement  of 

Babylon    his  reign,  historians  call  this  great  monarchy  indifferently 

mofempisreatthe  Babylonish  or  Assyrian  Empire.     The  history  of  Nabo- 

polassar's  successors  will  receive  due  attention  in  connexion 
with  that  of  the  Jews.  The  glories  of  the  Babylonish  dynasty  were 
buried  in  the  grave  with  Nebuchadnezzar,  the  second  of  the  race.  His 
feeble  and  dissolute  successors  loosely  held  the  sceptre  over  a  tottering 
empire ;  and  the  vigorous  hand  of  Nebuchadnezzar  himself  could 
hardly  have  resisted  the  predominant  fortune  of  the  Persian  Cyrus. 


History  of  Persia  to  A.M.  3500. 

KINGS    OF    PERSIA. 

CYRUS.  DAHIUS  2d. 

CAMBYSES.  ARTAXEREXES  2d. 

DARIUS  1st.  ARTAXEREXES  3d. 

XERXES.  DARIUS  3d. 
ARTAXERXES  1st. 

After  the  death  of  Nebuchadnezzar,  the  Babylonish  empire  rapidly 
hastened  to  its  downfall ;  while  the  monarchy  of  the  Medes  and  Per- 
sians proportionately  rose  in  power,  and  increased  in  ex- 
C/ereia!f   tent,  by  the  extraordinary  abilities  and  fortune  of  the  Per- 
sian  Cyrus.     For  a  detailed  account  of  the  Persian  hero, 
the  reader  is  referred  to  Herodotus,  Xenophon,  Rollin,  Prideaux,  &c., 


HISTORY     OP     PERSIA.  51 

whose  various  and  contradictory  accounts  demonstrate  the  uncertainty 
that  involves  his  history,  though  nothing:  can  be  better  attested  than  the 
final  result  of  his  wars.  It  has  been  asserted  by  some  authors,  that 
Cyrus  conquered  Media,  and  subjected  it  to  Persia,  before  he  com- 
menced hostilities  against  the  Babylonish  kings;  but  it  is  generally 
acknowledged  that  he  carried  on  all  his  wars  in  conjunction  with  his 
uncle.  Cyaxares,  king  of  Media,  whose  daughter  he  married,  and 
whose  dominions  he  finally  inherited.  Many  battles  and  victories  are 
attributed  to  these  two  confederated  kings,  during  a  war  of  twenty 
.  a  years,  commencing  in  3440.  The  fate  and  fortune  of  Crce- 
ofSLydia"S  sus,  king  of  Lydia,  who  allied  himself  with  Belshazzar,  was 
decided  in  the  tenth  year  of  the  war,  3456.  Cyrus  met  this 
powerful  antagonist  in  Cappadocia,  on  the  borders  of  the  Lyrfian  king- 
dom ;  defeated  him  in  battle,  pursued  him  into  the  heart  of  his  domin- 
ions ;  there  defeated  him  again ;  shortly  after  took  Sardis,  his  capital, 
and  made  the  unfortunate  king  himself  a  prisoner. 

Ten  years  elapsed  from  the  conquest  of  Croesus  by  Cyrus,  to  the 
taking  of  Babylon.  We  have  no  detailed  account  of  the  operations 
during  these  ten  years,  but  eight  of  them  must  have  been  consumed 
in  regulating  the  conquered  provinces,  and  in  making  new  conquests; 
and  two  years  were  spent  before  Babylon.  If  prodigies  of  valour, 
transcendent  skill,  or  superiority  of  numbers,  could  have  availed,  the 
fate  of  Babylon,  and  of  the  impious  Belshazzar,  would  not  have  been 

prolonged  two  complete  years.     But  storms,  assaults,  en- 
Taking  of     r .          °      ,    ,  .     r  J    .  ,.  ,  .  , 

Babylon,  gmes,  and  batteries,  were  impotently  directed  against  the 
towering  ramparts  and  lofty  battlements  of  Babylon.  Cyrus 
might  be  ignorant  of  the  decrees  of  heaven,  and  of  the  prophecies  of 
Isaiah,  who  called  him  by  name  two  hundred  years  before  his  birth, 
but  the  eventual  success  of  the  Persians  strikingly  exhibits  the  hand  of 
an  overruling  Providence.  To  seek  an  entrance  into  Babylon  by  di- 
verting the  waters  of  the  Euphrates  from  their  accustomed  channel 
through  the  town,  was  an  expedient  that  might  suggest  itself  to  the 
natural  sagacity  of  Cyrus;  but  each  bank  of  the  river  supported  an 
inner  wall  of  great  height  and  strength,  and  it  required  a  bold  pre- 
sumption, of  negligence  within  the  city,  to  justify  the  expectation  of 
entering  it,  even  after  the  channel  was  drained.  A  night  of  festivity, 
merriment,  and  intoxication,  chosen  by  Cyrus,  gave  complete  success 
to  his  daring  stratagem.  He  entered  the  city  unopposed;  killed  the 
king,  and  in  one  night  subjected  to  his  power  that  proud  people,  who 
for  two  years  had  defied  his  threats,  derided  his  unavailing  efforts,  and 
scoffed  at  his  baffled  armies.  See  Daniel  v. 

The  Median  empire  lasted  two  years  after  the  taking  of  Babylon  ; 
for  though  Cyrus,  the  Persian,  had  been  a  principal  agent  in  making 
all  these  great  conquests,  yet  as  long  as  his  uncle  Cyaxares  lived,  he 
yielded  to  him  the  precedence.  The  Persian  empire  commenced  in 
3468,  when  Cyrus  became  sole  king  by  the  death  of  his  uncle.  In 
the  same  vear,  Daniel,  finding  by  a  computation  of  the  time, 

Daniel  the     ,          ,  .  9      J  -  ,  5  ,        T  •   i       i 

prophet,     that  the  seventy  years  captivity,  foretold  by  Jeremiah,   had 
expired,  prevailed  upon  Cyrus  to  let  the  Jews  return  to  their 
.  own  country,  under  the  direction  of  Jeshua,  the  high  priest, 
and  Zerubbabel,  grandson  of  Jehoiachin,  and  prince  of  the 


52  HISTORYOFPERSIA. 

captivity.  The  decree  of  Cyrus  commanded  the  captive  Jews  to  re- 
turn, and  repeople  their  desolated  country,  and  rebuild  their  city  and 
temple.  Daniel  possessed  great  influence  in  the  councils  of  Cyrus  ;  he 
had  before  been  advanced  into  the  highest  grade  of  office  by  the  kings 
of  Babylon,  and  his  reputation  for  learning  and  wisdom  procured  him 
the  highest  station  under  Cyrus. 

The   great  Cyrus  was  succeeded  by  his  unworthy  son 
Cambyses,  Cambyses,  whose  whole  career  is  marked  by  the  odious  ex- 
^conquers8'  travagance  of  a  wild  and  furious  despot.     In  the  early  part 
Egypt-     of  his  reign,  this  mad  king  marched  into  Egypt,  Avhich  he 
conquered,  and  annexed  to  the  Persian  empire.     In  this  ex- 
pedition, from  which  he  never  returned,   he  displayed  all  those  cruel 
and  ferocious  qualities  which  have  stained  his  character  with  infamy. 
Fifty  thousand  of  his  men  perished,  whom  his  wanton  cupidity  sent. 
into  the  Lybian  desert  to  plunder  the  temple  of  Jupiter  Ammon.     He 
lost  one  half  of  a  great  army  in  his  inglorious  expedition  against  Ethi- 
opia.    He  sent  an  assassin  to  kill  his  brother  Smerdis,  because  he  had 
dreamed  that  he  sat  upon  the  throne  ;  and  he  killed  his  wife,  who  was 
also  his  sister,  because  she  shed  tears  for  her  murdered  brother.     On 
his  way  home,  in  Syria,  a  herald  met  him,   and  proclaimed  Smerdis, 
the   Magian,    king,    who,    under  the   false   and   assumed 
""usurper.  e  character  of  Smerdis,  the  brother  of  Cambyses,  had  usurped 
the  throne.     In  the  act  of  mounting  his  horse  to  lead  his 
troops  to  his  capital  against  the  usurper,  his  sword  fell  from  the  scab- 
bard, and  gave  him  a  wound,  of  waich  he  died  in  a  few  days.   Smerdis 
the  Magian  reigned  seven  months,   when  a  discovery  being  made  of 
the  imposition,  he  was  deposed  and  killed,  by  a  conspiracy  of  seven 
noblemen,  one  of  whom,   Darius  Hystaspes,  ascended  the 
Darius Hys-  vacant  throne.     Darius  married  two  of  the  daughters   of 
tasfea-      Cyrus,  whose  blood  was  thus  transmitted  through  the  whole 

succession  of  Persian  kings. 

It  is  supposed  that  Cambyses  was  the  Ahasuerus,  and  Smerdis  the 
Artaxerxes,  who  are  said  by  Ezra  to  have  obstructed  the  building  of 
the  second  temple.     In  the  second  year  of  Darius  Hystaspes,  the  Jews 
being  roused  by  the  remonstrances  of  the  prophets  Haggai  and  Zech- 
ariah,  applied  themselves  diligently  to  provide  materials  for  the  tem- 
ple; and  notwithstanding  the  Samaritans  persisted  in  the-ir 
Second  tem-  clamorous  opposition,  Darius  issued  a  decree  confirming  the 
pie  compiet-  original  decree  of  Cyrus,  and  forbidding  the  Samaritans  to 
**'        obstruct  the  work.     The  temple  was  finished  in  3488,  just 

twenty  years  after  the  return  of  the  Jews. 

The  Persian  kings  having  made  Susa  their  capital,  proud  Babylon 
was  no  longer  the  seat  of  a  great  empire.  In  the  fifth  year  of  Darius, 
that  city  revolted,  and  it  cost  him  a  siege  of  twenty  months  to  reduce 
it,  and  even  then  he  was  compelled  to  resort  to  stratagem.  In  3491, 
Darius  carried  his  arms  into  Europe,  conquered  Thrace,  and 
^Darius!  °  made  an  unsuccessful  expedition  against  the  Scythians  in- 
habiting the  western  shores  of  the  Euxine,  or  Black  Sea. 
After. his  return  into  Persia,  he  conquered  India,  and  annexed  that 
country  to  his  dominions,  which  then  embraced  all  the  great  countries 
and  kingdoms  in  the  west  of  Asia,  besides  Egypt  in  Africa,  and  Thrace 
in  Europe. 


HISTORYOPGREECE.  53 


History  of  Lydia  to  3500. 

The  names  of  the  Lydian  kings  of  three  successive  dynasties  are 
not  deserving  of  a  place  on  the  chart;  little  can  be  confidently  said  of 
any  of  them,  except  Croesus,  the  last  of  his  race,  and  of  him  fable 
speaks  more  fluently  than  sober  history.  We  need  not  doubt  that 
the  kings  of  Lydia,  by  successive  conquests,  reduced  all  the  other 
states  and  kingdoms  of  Asia  Minor  under  their  subjection,  and  that  the 
Greeks  settled  there  were  included  among  the  numerous  tributary  sub- 
jects of  Cro3sus.  We  may  readily  believe  that  the  Lydian  court  and 
king  are  truly  represented  as  supporting  great  magnificence  and  splen- 
dour, when  we  consider  the  internal  resources  of  this  country,  and  the 
busy  commerce  of  the  enterprizing  Greeks,  which  might  supply  with 
great  prodigality  the  luxuries  of  a  court,  and  serve  to  exhibit  in  strik- 
ing colours,  the  vicissitudes  of  fortune,  in  the  sudden  and  unhappy 
overthrow  of  Croesus  and  all  his  Lydian  grandeur. 


History  of  Greece  to  Jl.M.  3500. 

During  the  fabulous  or  heroic  age  of  Greece,  a  splendid  system  of 
fiction  was  formed,  that  far  transcends  all  others  of  the  kind  ever  pro- 
duced by  the  wild  imaginations  of  men.  Many  real  characters  and 
transactions  may  have  been  disguised  in  these  extravagant  fables,  but 
we  are  limited  to  mere  conjecture,  in  attempting  to  separate  truth  from 
embellishment ;  and  as  yet,  no  very  satisfactory  conclusions  have  re- 
sulted from  speculations  directed  to  that  object.  It  is  impossible  to 
trace  the  origin  of  ancient  fictions,  or  understand  fully  the  process  that 
could  have  imposed  them  for  truth  upon  the  credulity  of  mankind. 
Whatever  might  have  been  their  origin,  it  is  certain  that  these  roman- 
tic dreams  finally  gained  implicit  belief,  and  produced  the 
Effects  of  the  most  surprising  effects  upon  the  character  and  transactions 
cm*1  °mh-  °f  men-  1"ne  ta^es  °f  wonder  that  were  related  of  the  ancient 
thoiogy.  heroes  and  demigods,  were  adapted  to  inspire  the  human 
breast  with  that  ardent  passion  for  glory,  and  that  singular 
enthusiasm  which  predominated  in  the  Grecian  character,  to  the  la- 
mentable disparagement  of  the  milder  and  more  amiable  virtues. 

The  geographical  situation  of  Greece,  had  also  its  share  of 
phicSsitua-  influence  in  forming  the  manners  and  character  of  the  peo- 
tion.  pie.  The  face  of  their  country  every  where  exhibited  the 

most  romantic,  picturesque,  and  interesting  scenes;  their 
delightful  climate  was  calculated  to  cherish  ardour,  enthusiasm,  and 
patriotic  devotion  ;  while  the  numerous  seas,  bays,  and  gulfs  that  sur- 
rounded them,  promoted  intercourse  with  their  neighbours,  facilitated 
commercial  interchange,  and  invited  enterprizing  emigrants  from 
abroad. 


54  HISTORYOFGREECE. 

Among  the  numerous  causes  that  combined  to  raise  the  Grecians  to 
so  high  a  pitch  of  physical  and  intellectual  improvement,  we  must  not 
overlook  their  numerous  games  and  other  institutions,  which  drew  all 
the  citizens  very  frequently  together  from  every  part  of  the  country,  to 
exercise  their  skill  and  stimulate  their  ambition  by  emulation  and  strife. 
The  Olympic  and  Isthmian  games  were  .the  most  celebrated; 
or  Games,  jjut;  besides  these,  every  little  state,  and  every  considerable 

institutions,       .  .    J  .  „ .     ,       ,  .     ,    J    . 

&.c.        city,    had  numerous  institutions  of  the  kind,   where  it  was 
honourable  to  excel,  and  disgraceful  to  be  excelled. 

ATHENS. 

Athens  gov-  The  Athenians,  after  abolishing  the  kingly  office  in  2934, 
km™^— per-  retained  their  perpetual  or  hereditary  archons,  till  3250,  after 
pefuaiar-  which  time  they  were  governed  by  decennial  archons,  or  ar- 
niai"Barcho"schons  chosen  for  ten  years,  till  3320,.  when  they  established 
—annual  ar-  an  aristocratical  government,  which  was  administered  by  ten 

CllOnS  .  .  ml    •        1  ...  l-i  l 

— a democra- annual  archons.  I  his  last  institution  subsisted  nearly  one 
cy-  hundred  years,  till  Solon  established  a  democracy  by  vesting 
the  power  in  the  assemblies  of  the  people.  Solon  flourished  in  the 
time  of  Nebuchadnezzar  the  great,  and  died  in  3444.  His  institutions 
were  preserved  with  some  interruptions,  till  Athens  submitted  to  the 
Romans.  The  laws  of  Solon  secured  to  the  Athenians  a  licentious 
freedom,  which  was  liable  to  perpetual  abuse,  and  which]the  wild  de- 
mocracy of  Athens  seldom  failed  to  abuse. 

About  the  time  of  Nebuchadnezzar's  death,  in  3443,  and 
Pisistratus  shortly  before  the  death  of  Solon,  Pisistratus,  a  man  of  great 

usurps   sove-      .  .      J  .  1      .  °  . 

reign  power,  address  and  persuasive  eloquence,  usurped  the  sovereign 
power  at  Athens,  in  opposition  to  the  interest  and  influence 
of  Solon  himself,  and  retained  his  authority  with  some  interruptions 
thirty-three  years.  The  Pisistratidae,  or  sons  of  Pisistratus,  inherited 
their  father's  authority,  and  continued  to  exercise  it  eighteen  years, 
from  3477  to  3495.  Such  was  the  aversion  of  the  Athenians  to  the 
kingly  government,  that  Pisistratus  himself  was  txvice  driven  into  exile 
by  the  turbulence  of  the  democratic  factions,  though  his  government 
was  exceedingly  mild  and  indulgent,  even  to  his  bitterest  enemies. 
His  son  Hipparchus,  was  assassinated  by  a  desperate  band  of  conspir- 
ators .;  and  Hippias,  the  other  son,  who  was  associated  with  Hippar- 
chus, was  finally  expelled  from  Athens  in  3495,  in  the  same  year  of 
the  expulsion  of  the  kings  of  Rome. 

SPARTA. 

From  the  year  2900,  two  kings,  possessed  of  equal  authority,  reign- 
ed jointly  at  Sparta  till  a  late  period  of  Spartan  history.     In  the  days 
ofJoash,  king  of  Judah,  and  about  three  hundred  years  be- 

Lycurgus    /.          .,       ..        ° /.  ~,   ,          L  .,..*',.  ~ 

forms  his  codelore  the  time  oi  Solon,  Lycurgus,  one  of  the  joint  kings  of 
ofiaws.    gparta,  instituted  that  famous  code  of  laws  which  rendered 
Their  effects. tne  Spartans  the  most  hardy,  courageous,  inflexible,  and  ob- 
durate people  that  ever  existed,  unless  we  except  the  early 
Romans.     The  commendation  of  such  laws  and  of  such  a  people,  be- 
longs to  those  who  have  a  .taste  to  admire,  and  a  disposition  to  eulo- 


HISTORY     OP     GREECE.  55 

gize  patient  and  voluntary  suffering1,  painful  abstinence,  gloomy  auste- 
rity, and  hardy  discipline,  practised  almost  to  the  exclusion  of  every 
virtue,  and  seemingly  for  no  other  purpose  than  to  bear  down  their 
wretched  slaves  and  weaker  neighbours,  under  iron  yokes  of  oppres- 
sion and  cruelty.  The  force  and  effects  of  this  so  much  admired  sys- 
tem of  laws,  will  be  progressively  developed  by  the  subsequent  history 
of  Sparta ;  they  were  always  cruelly  felt  by  their  miserable  Helots  or 

slaves ;  and  were  early  and  conspicuously  displayed  in  the 
enslaved.3  Messenian  wars.     The  first  Messenian  war — nineteen  years, 

from  3261  to  3280;  the  second  fourteen  years,  from  3319  to 
to  3333;  the  notice  of  the  third  belongs  to  the  next  period.  The  poor 
Messenians  had  the  misfortune  to  be  the  nearest  neighbours  of  the 
Spartans,  and  they  had  the  temerity  to  defend  themselves  against  the 
wanton  and  unprovoked  attack  of  the  disciples  of  Lycurgus.  At  the 
end  of  the  second  war,  after  two  glorious  struggles  for  independence> 
they  were  compelled  to  submit  to  a  condition  little  better  than  that  of 
absolute  slavery.  After  the  reduction  of  the  Messenians,  Sparta  long 
maintained  a  complete  ascendency  over  the  other  states  of  the  Pelopon- 
nesus. 

CORINTH. 

Monarchy  About  3250,  the  Corinthians  killed  their  last  king  of  the 
c^'th^-"  race  of  Bachida?,  and  abolished  monarchy.  A  numerous 
'branch  of  the  Bachidae  then  seized  the  government,  and 
maintained  a  rigid  aristocracy,  till  about  3350,  when  Cypselus,  a  mild 
and  gentle  ruler,  destroyed  the  reigning  oligarchy,  and  governed  the 
state.  Periander,  a  contemporary  of  Solon,  and  like  him  styled  one  of 
the  seven  wise  men  of  Greece,  succeeded  his  father  Cypselus,  in  3375, 
and  died  in  3419.  Psammetichus,  the  nephew  of  Periander,  was  ex- 
pelled in  3422,  after  which  Corinth  usually  maintained  a  free  govern- 
ment. 

After  the  abolition  of  Royalty  at  Corinth,  every  Grecian 

Sparta  the  ,      ,  ,.         ...  J       J  „.  ,  ,  .  J       , 

only  kingly  state  had  free  institutions,  except  Sparta,  whose  kings  though 
^Greece'.1  hereditary,  were  limited  and  restrained  in  their  authority 
by  the  senate  and  Ephori.  The  democracy  of  Greece  was 
favourable  to  the  improvement  and  cultivation  of  the  liberal  arts,  and 
encouraged  the  full  display  of  genius  of  every  order  and  cast ;  but  the 
capricious  despotism  of  a  mob,  unchecked  by  constitutional  barriers, 
often  proved  more  fatal  to  the  lives  and  liberty  of  good  menr  than  the 
arbitrary  rule  of  a  single  tyrant. 

MACEDONIA. 

Though  this  kingdom  is  said  to  have  been  founded  by 
IMaced'miia>f  Grecian  emigrants  from  Argos,  as  early  as  3190,  its  kings 
founded  3190.  are  little  worthy  of  notice  till  the  time  of  Philip  and  Alexan- 
der, who  will  be  introduced  as  the  conquerors  of  all  Greece, 
and  of  the  whole  Persian  monarchy. 

COLONIES^ 

The  states  founded  in   Greece  by  early  emigrants  from 
ireenies!0    Egypt  and  Asia,  after  ward  furnished  enterprising  colonies,  that 


56  'HISTORY    OF    ROME. 

made  settlements  on  nearly  all  the  islands  and  coasts  of  the  Mediterra- 
nean. The  most  flourishing  of  these  colonies  again  supplied  emigrants 
for  other  settlements,  and  long  before  the  year  3500,  the  Grecian  name 
and  nation  were  diffused  over  the  coasts  of  Asia  Minor,  Thrace,  Ma- 
cedon,  Italy.  Sicily,  Gaul,  and  Gyrene  in  Africa,  as  well  as  the  nume- 
rous islands  in  the  JEgean  and  Ionian  seas.  The  JEolians,  lonians, 
and  Dorians  settled  the  western  coast  of  Asia  Minor  before  the  time  of 
Solomon.  They  finally  submitted  to  the  king  of  Lydia,  and  with  him 
to  Cyrus.  The  most  famous  Grecian  cities  in  Italy,  were  Tarentum, 
Crotona,  Sybaris,  Rhegium,  and  Parthenope,  or  Naples.  Those  in 
Sicily,  Syracuse,  Agrigentum,  Gela,  Messena,  Sicily  and  the  south 
of  Italy  bore  the  name  of  Magna  Grecia,  or  Great  Greece,  from  the 
prevalence  of  Greek  population. 


History  of  Rome  to  AM.  3500. 

The  grandeur  of  the  Roman  name  would  seem  to  entitle  their  Ro- 
man majesties  to  a  respectful  attention  ;  but  it  is  humbly  conceived  that 
the  poets  have  already  exhausted  the  magnificent  theme  of  godlike 
descent  and  marvellous  origin;  and  that  grave  historians  have  amply 
embellished  the  early  wonders  and  infant  exploits  of  a  rapacious  ban- 
ditti, who  made  war,  and  plunder,  and  conquest,  the  only  honourable 
employments  in  their  little  community.  That  Roman  kings  conquered 
one  little  city,  and  one  little  territory  after  another  ;  and  that  Roman 
consuls  prosecuted  similar  conquests,  after  the  expulsion  of  the  kings, 
we  may  venture  to  believe,  without  any  confidence  in  the  details  of 
their  history ;  and  that  sullen  perseverance  was  the  ruling  character 
of  the  early  Romans,  can  no  more  be  questioned  than  that  Tarquin  was 
a  tyrant. 

Italy,  (itaiia.)  Ita'y  is  tne  English  translation  of  the  Latin  Italia,  dif- 
Tne  origin  of  this  ferently  applied  at  different  times,  both  by  Romans  and 

name    is  uncer-  rjreeks 

Hesperia    meant    a   western    country  in   relation    to 
Hesperia, (Greek)  Greece.     Ausonia,  &c.,  though  sometimes  applied  by  the 
tria^aud  Opicla! Greeks  to  all  Italy,  were  strictly  applied  to  particular  dis- 
tricts. 
North  Italy,  or      Liguria,  (Genoa)  between  the  Appennines  and  the  ffulf 

Cisalpine    Gaul,      -       °  }  ,      .       .    *  *  .  .          .  .  & 

including  Ligu-  of  Genoa,  though  commonly  included  m  Cisalpine  Gaul, 
riTahedVmo1em  was  «?t  inhabited  by  Gauls,  and  but  few  Gauls  settled  in 
kingdom  of  Sar-  Venetia,  ( VenetH  around  the  head  of  the  Adriatic.  For 

diiiia.    and     the  .  i  •  /.  i  T  .  ,    __ 

Austrian    king-  this  reason,  .we  frequently  see  Liguria  and  Venetia  on 
dOIandf  Venice41"  maP8'  coloured  separately  from  Cisalpine  Gaul, 
cispadane/rrans-     Cispadane  Gaul,  Gaul  on  this  side  the  Po,  (with  Ligu- 
^e'(8ubdivi-ria,)  Transpadane,  beyond  the  Po,  (with  Venetia.) 

Central  Italy,  Central  Italy  was  the  original  and  proper  Italy  of  the 
l^L  anT^i)01-'  ^omans  i  while  the  Grecians  at  first  applied  the  name  to 
«iuai. a"'  ""  Grecian  Italy,  or  South  Italy.  But  finally  both  Greeks 


HISTORY     OF     ROME.  57 

and  Romans  included  under  the  name,  both  Gaul  in  the  north,  and 
Magna  Gra?cia  in  the  south. 

Tuscania,  Tuscia,  Etruria,  Tyrrhenia,  all  for  the  same 
Tuscany  or  Etru-  colintry.  The  inhabitants  of  all  these  districts  of  Central 
Umbrja,  (Sena  Italy,  must  be  considered  aboriginal,  since  they  cannot  be 
Latium,"(Aiba.)  distinctly  traced  to  their  origin.  How  far  they  differed  in 
Sabina  UB  ui  ^awS)  language,  and  manners,  we  cannot  ascertain,  as  the 
Marsi.)  '  Romans  very  early  diffused  among  them  their  own  laws, 
Campac'iaaj  (°pl  language,  and  institutions;  in  other  words,  all  these  peo- 
Samnium.  pie  were  early  romanized. 

The  imposing  name  of  Magna  Graecia,  (Great  Greece) 
implies  the  prevalence  of  Greek  population  in  the  south  of 
I  Ita'y.  ar*d  <n  the  island  of  Sicily.    It  was  chiefly  the  coasts 
ian   Greece,  or  however  that  were  settled  by  the  Greeks,  while  the  barba- 

Grecian  Italy.)—  T  .     r,          ..     ~,    ,    ,J  .  ...     „ 

rous  Lucani,  Bruttn,  Calabri,  Apulu,  &c.,  occupied  the 
interior.    It  was  a  long  time  before  the  Romans  conflicted 
with  these  people. 

The  main  design  of  Virgil,  in  his  poem  called  the 
IEMM^—  divine  ^E"6^,  was  to  compliment  his  patron  Augustus  Cassar, 
descent  of  the  and,  in  fact,  the  whole  Latin  people,  with  a  divine  descent 
gino"  Latins.  s"-  fr°ra  the  Trojan  yEneas,  the  son  of  Venus.  But  sober 
bines,  Tuscans,  history  rejects  the  fiction,  and  we  can  barely  recognize  a 

&c.,  not  known  ;,..•'_•'.  .  .  .  .  .  /  _         .&        . 

nor  the  charac-  distinct  Latin  nation,  without  pretending  to  define  in  what 
Latins8  "clearly  Aspects,    except    in    name    and    geographical   position, 
distinguished    they  differed  from  their  near  neighbours,  the  Volsci,  Ru- 
a7They\°caeme  tuli,  -^Equi,   and  Sabini,  with  whom  they  long  contended 
bee  un^er  tne  Roman   banners,   and  with  whom  they  often 
joined  in  rebelling  against  the  Romans. 

First  period,  250  years,  beginning  A.U.C.  1.  —  A.M. 
3250—  B.C.   750,   7  Kings.      Romulus.     Rejecting  the 


citiz-msiu-  fictions  of  the  poets,  we  may  soberly  regard  Romulus  as 

gitives  troin  oth-  .,        /.  ,  ,,  V,  i  •    i     i  i     j        •  i_    e       •  • 

er  places  and  by  the  founder  of  Rome,  which  he  peopled  with  fugitives  and 
^SfZHaPjE  banditti,  Sabines,  &c.  while  he  made  some  small  conquests. 

utility    C«1M*>,    llje      _—  .  rr\t  /»     i      T*.Y 

people  of  a  con-  Numa  Pompihus.  1  he  peaceful  Numa  was  the  author  of 
city'  the  Roman  sacred  rites  and  mysteries.  Tullus  Hostilius, 
Rom'anPehUwr)y  ^  destroying  Alba,  the  former  chief  city  of  the  Latins  was 
»  fun  of  marvels  the  founder  ofthe  Roman  supremacy  over  the  other  Latin 
iToliiy^iear'that  tribes.  Ancus  Martivs,  after  conquering  to  the  sea,  found- 
the  kings  made  a  ed  the  Roman  port  of  Ostia,  at  the.  mouth  of  the  Tiber. 

sl.iw  and  pamiul    „,  ,,        *-,.      .  »  i-    L    j  ^L     r> 

progress  in  con-  JTarquin  the  First  established  the  Roman  supremacy  over 
vTtales^round  the  Tuscans,  distant  Sabines,  &c.  ;  founded  the  famous 
them,  who  con-  capitol,  and  other  public  edifices.  Servius  '/  ulliut  pre- 
served the  Roman  supremacy  over  the  neighbouring 
tantmi^tten  stf*tes,  and  artfully  classed  the  citizens  by  centuries,  re- 
was  that  of  the  garding  alone  the  qualifications  of  property,  in  fixing  the 
vtus^Tuiifus^  influence  each  century  should  have  in  the  election.  Tar- 
New  conquests,  quinthe  Proud  was  expelled  for  abusing  his  power,  and  was 

and  new  inslitu-    -1      .        ,  ,  •    t  i          •  •  • 

tions  will  come  assisted  several  years  by  the  neighbouring  states  in  trying 
iilon,aHdthSeUCnext  to  recover  his  throne.  'But  monarchy  WHS  abolished,  and 
period  till  the  a  commonwealth  substituted  two  annual  consuls  taking 
ma±Ll  b°r°"  the  place  of  the  kings.  3494  A.M. 

8 


58  HISTORY      OP     CARTHAGE, 


History  of  Carthage  to  JIM.  3500. 

Carthage  may  have  been  founded  in  3135,  but  the  time  is  uncer- 
tain. Q,ueen  Dido,  and  her  Tyrian  train,  may  flourish  in  poetic  fancy, 
the  original  founders  of  this  singular  community ;  but  the  historian 
can  do  no  more  than  recognize  in  the  Carthaginian  race,  a  Tyrian 
descent,  and  a  true  hereditary  spirit  of  commercial  jealousy,  and  grasp- 
ing enterprise.  Authentic  history  first  discovers  this  great  people,  not 
in  the  act  of  measuring  out  the  bounds  of  their  future  capital  with 
thongs  of  a  bull's-hide,  but  already  grown  up  to  maturity,  wealth,  and 
strength.  The  Carthaginians  carried  on  a  lucrative  commerce  with 
all  parts  of  the  then  known  world.  They  governed  a  great  extent  of 
country  on  the  African  coast;  and  early  possessed  Spain,  Sardinia,  and 
some  cities  in  Sicily.  Their  unfortunate  expedition  against  the  Gre- 
cian cities  in  Sicily,  together  with  their  wars  and  final  conquest  by  the 
Romans,  belong  to  another  period  of  history. 


Important  Dates  and  Events  from  3000  to  3500. 

The  dismemberment  of  the  kingdom  of  Israel,  in  3029;  the  building" 
of  Rome,  3251 ;  the  supposed  dismemberment  of  the  ancient  Assyrian 
Empire,  in  3257  ;  the  commencement  of  the  first  captivity,  and  destruc- 
tion of  the  kingdom  of  Syria,  by  Tiglath-Pileser,  in  3264;  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  kingdom  of  Israel,  and  completion  of  the  first  captivity,  in 
3283;  the  restoration  of  Babylon  to  the  Assyrian  Empire,  by  Esarhad- 
don,  in  3324;  the  destruction  of  Nineveh,  and  commencement  of  the 
Babylonish  dynasty,  in  3379,  twenty-one  years  before  Nebuchadnezzar 
began  to  reign  alone,  in  3400;  the  commencement  of  the  second  cap- 
tivity by  Nebuchadnezzar,  who  took  Daniel  and  other  captives,  in  3398, 
two  years  before  he  became  sole  king;  the  death  of  Nabopolassar,  in 
3400,  when  Nebuchadnezzar  began  to  reign  alone;  the  captivity  of 
Jehoiachin,  six  years  after  the  commencement  of  Nebuchadnezzar's 
sole  reign,  in  3406;  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem,  by  Nebuchadnezzar, 
and  the  completion  of  the  second  captivity,  in  3416;  3426  was  about 
the  middle  of  the  siege  of  Tyre,  which  lasted  thirteen  years;  Nebu- 
chadnezzar had  overrun  Egypt,  and  finished  all  his  expeditions,  about 
3436;  some  suppose  that  Cyrus  first  commenced  his  wars,  about  3446, 
against  Neriglissar,  then  reigning  at  Babylon  ;  Cyrus  conquered  Croe- 
sus, and  added  the  kingdom  of  Lydia  to  the  Median  and  Persian  do- 
minions, in  3456 ;  Cyrus  took  Babylon,  and  put  an  end  to  the  Baby- 
lonish or  Assyrian  Empire,  in  3466;  in  3468,  Cyrus,  by  the  death  of 
his  uncle  Cyaxares,  became  sole  monarch  of  the  vast  dominions,  before 
possessed  and  conquered  by  himself  and  his  uncle  jointly  ;  and  here 
commences  the  Persian  Empire.  In  the  same  year,  viz.,  3468,  Cyrus 
released  the  captive  Jews,  and  permitted  them  to  return  to  their  own 


HISTORY     OP     GREECE.  59 

country  ;  twenty  years  afterward,  in  the  reign  of  Darius  Hystaspes,  in 
348S,  the  second  temple  was  finished;  in  3495,  the  kings  were  expelled 
from  Rome,  and  the  Pisistratidae  from  Athens ;  3500,  hostilities  com- 
menced between  the  Persians  and  Grecians. 


Continuation  of  the  History,  from  3500,  A.M.,  to  the 
time  of  Augustus,  4004,  A.M. 

We  find  the  civilized  world,  at  the  period  on  which  we  now  enter, 
occupied  by  two  great  empires,  founded  by  two  conquering  nations — 
Persia  in  the  east,  Carthage  in  the  west ; — the  Greek  Republics  holding 
a  middle  position, — the  power  of  Rome,  which  in  the  end  wrests  the 
empire  from  them  all,  as  yet  limited  to  a  territory  within  sight  of  her 
own  walls. 


Aiui^o4)'        This  year   is  distinguished  by  occurrences  important  as 
leading  eventually  to  the  desperate  struggle  between  Greece 
and  Persia.     Aristagoras,  tyrant  of  Miletus,  having  engaged  the  Per- 
sian  satrap  Artaphernes  in  an  unsuccessful  expedition  against  the 
island  of  Naxos,  and  apprehensive  of  punishment  in  consequence  of  its 
failure,  instigated  the  people  of  Miletus,  and  of  other  Ionic  cities,  to 
revolt  from  the  Persian  dominion.     Athens,  as  the  mother 
°n'duedSU    state  of  the  Ionic  colonies,   was  induced  to   render  assis- 
Vc'*»95'  tance  to  ^e  revolted  towns ;  but  after  a  few  years  the  rebel- 
lion was  quelled,  and  the  lonians  again  reduced  to  subjec- 
tion.    Thus  was  kindled  the  war  which  ultimately  involved  all  the 
states  of  Greece,  and  which  is  termed  the  GRECIAN  AND  PER- 
vadeGreece.  SIAN  WAR.     After  having  sent  in  vain  to  require  earth  and 
IB  c' 494°'  water  as  a  to'£en  °f  submission,  the  Persians  reduced  the 
Greek  islands,  and  with  an  army  of  1 10,000  men,  under  Da- 
Defeat  at  t'8  tne  Mede,  invaded  Attica.     At  Marathon  they  were  met 
Marathon,  by  a  band  of  10,000  Athenians,  led  by  Miltiades  and  entirely 
•UxUfc    defeated.     A  grand  impulse  was  thus  given  to  Greece,  which 
served  to  awaken  her  ambition,  to  give  her  a  knowledge  of 
her  strength,  and  to  confer  on  Athens  that  pre-eminence  among  her 
sister  states,  which  she  so  nobly  sustained.     For  ten  years  the  Per- 
sians did  not  again  invade  Greece,  and  Darius  dying,  in  the 
ceeds  to    mean  time,   was  succeeded  by  his  son  Xerxes.     From  his 
^throne*0  vast  dominions  this  prince  collected  an  army  of  2,000,000 
of  men,  passed  with  great  pomp  through  Asia  Minor,  and  ar- 
riving at  the  Hellespont,  constructed  a  bridge  of  boats,  over 
""which    his    army   passed   into   Europe.  _    The    Thracians 
and  Macedonians  having  been  compelled  to  follow  in  his  train,  he  ar- 
rived without  obstruction  at  Thermopylae,  a  narrow  pass  in  Mount 
(Eta,  of  only  25  feet  in  width,  between  Phocis  and  Thessaly.     For 
three  days  this  pass  was  successfully  defended  by  the  Spartan  Leoni- 


60  HISTORY     OP     GREECE. 

A.M.  3525.  das  with  10,000  men.  But  when  it  was  discovered  that  a  secret 
path  had  been  made  known  to  the  Persians,  through  which  the 
mountain  might  be  passed  by  their  army,  this  force  was  dismissed,  with 
the  exception  of  300    Lacedemonians,  who,  together  with 
Thermo0y8iael'ie'r  king,   remained,   and   were  destroyed,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  one  man.    The  news  of  this  defeat  was  received  by  the 
Grecian  fleet,  which  had  just  been  engaged  in  an  indecisive  battle  off 
the  promontory  of  Artemesium,  and  caused  it  to  return  southward  to 
the  Saronic  gulf.     The  Persians  having  gained  the  strait  of  Thermo- 
pylae, termed  from  its  importance  the  key  to  Greece,  proceeded  through 
Phocis  and  Beotia,    entered  Attica,  and  arriving  at  Athens,  laid  the 
city,  which  had  been  deserted  by  the  inhabitants,  in  ruins, 
victorious^  at  While  the  city  was  in  flames,  Themistocles  defeated  the 
saiamis.    persjan   fleet  at  Salamis,   and  Xerxes  in  terror  fled  from 
A-M.  3525.  Greece)  leaving,  however,  an  army  of  300,000  men  under 
Mardonius  to  effect  the  conquest  of  Greece.     Three  months 
afterwards,  the  total  defea  toft  his  force  at  Plataea  by  the  Greeks  under 
Pausanias  and  Aristides,  liberated  the  Greeks  from  all  fear, 
Pausanias  an(]    indeed,  from  the  presence  of  their  invaders.     On  the 

and  Anstides  .  '         .  ,  .  .          .    -          .          ,  . 

atPiataja.  same  day  Xantippus  and   Leotychides  defeated  and  burned 

the  Persian  fleet  at  Mycale.     The  war,  however,  continued 

until  3555,   when  it  was  terminated  by  the  double  victory  obtained  by 

sea  and   land  over  the  Persiat  s  at  the  mouth  of  the  Eurymedon,  in 

Pamphylia,  by  Cimon  the  son  of  Miltiades. 

The  Persian  invasion  had  produced  a  certain  degree  of  union  among 
the  Greeks;  the  Athenians  and  Spartans,  however,  soon  returned  to 
their  ancient  rivalry.     The  latter  had  enjoyed  the  nominal  command 
in  all  the  battles  in  which  they  had  been  jointly  concerned,  but  Athens 
had  acquired   the  greater  glory.     Themistocles  proposed  to   rebuild 
Athens,  and  in  place  of  its  wooden  walls,  to  surround  it  with  walls  of 
stone.     This  the  Spartans  opposed,  assigning  as  a  reason, 
A^hensre-  ^at  w'lnm  tnose  walls  the  Persians,  if  victorious,  might  se- 
bum,     curely  establish  themselves.     Themistocles,  however,  by  his 
address,  obtained  his  end,  without  involving  the  two  states  in 
open  hostilities. 

In  the  year  3525  commences  what  we  term  Grecian  re- 
taliation,  taliation  for  the  Persian  invasion.     Cimon,  who   was  con- 
^B'C  47Q5   spicuous  in  his  youth  at  Salamis,  will  for  thirty  years  be  the 
champion  of  Greece,  and  the  deliverer  of  the  Greek  islands- 
and  coasts  from  the  yoke  of  Persia. 

For  twenty  years  from  the  termination  of  the  Persian  war, 
Peioponnesianthe  states  of  Athens  and  Sparta  were  engaged  in  continual 
AM. 3573.  bickerings,  jealousies,  and  slight  skirmishes,  which,  in  3573, 
B.C.  434     broke  out  into  open  war.     The  immediate  cause  of  this  con- 
test was  a  dispute  between  Corcyra  and  her  colony  Dyrra- 
chium.     Corinth  interfered  in  favour  of  Dyrrachium,  and  Athens  in 
favour  of  Corcyra.      Sparta,    of  course,  was  with  Corinth  against 
Athens,  and  ultimately  all  Greece  engaged  in  the  struggle. 

During  this  war  the  scene  of  action  was  frequently  changed,  the 
military  operations  being  confined  at  particular  times  to  particular  re- 
gions. 


HISTORYOPGREECE.  61 

First  scene. — Attica  and  the  Peloponnesus,  Reciprocal  invasions 
for  six  years. 

Second  scene. — Ionian  Sea,  and  the  west  coast  of  Greece,  around 
Corcyra.  Connected  with  this  was  the  expedition  of  Demosthenes 
the  general,  into  ^Etolia  and  Locris,  and  the  siege  of  Pylus. 

Third  scene. — Coasts  of  Macedon  and  the  Chakidice,  whose  inha- 
bitants having  been  reduced,  again  revolt  against  Athens.  Here  the 
Spartans  are  victorious,  particularly  in  the  battle  of  Amphipolis,  3583. 
After  this  the  war  is  closed,  and  a  truce  concluded  for  fifty  years,  call- 
ed the  peace  of  Nicias,  from  the  Athenian  ambassador.  Corinth, 
Argos,  and  other  states,  dissatisfied  with  the  truce,  formed  a  league, 
called  the  Argive  league,  which  agitated  the  period  of  six  years,  while 
the  general  war  was  suspended. 

Fourth  scene. — Sicily.  A  great  part  of  the  four  following  years 
was  spent  in  a  fruitless  expedition  to  Sicily.  Alcibiades  went  thither 
to  protect  the  Ionian  cities  against  the  Dorian  city  of  Syracuse,  which 
was  supported  by  Corinth  and  Sparta.  After  a  series  of  unparalleled 
vicissitudes,  the  Dorians  were  triumphant,  the  Athenians  lost  their 
fleet,  and  the  whole  army  was  either  destroyed  by  military  excursions, 
or  miserably  perished  in  dungeons. 

Fifth  scene. — The  sEgean  Sea.     The  war  was  commenc- 

gean  ea.   g(j  foere  |jy  tjje  Spartans,  who  went  to  deliver  its  islands  and 
coasts  from  the  Athenians,  as  Cimon  had  from  the  Persians.     We  now 
introduce  the  Persians  for  the  first  time  as  a  party.     Darius  Nothus 
was  then  reigning,  and  his  subjects  had  not  forgotten  the  enmity  of 
their  fathers  against  Athens ;    they  still  remembered  Marathon  and 
Salamis.     We  have  now  to  reproduce  Alcibiades,  who  having  been 
accused  of  sacrilege,  had  been  ordered  home  to  Athens  from  Sicily 
to  receive  the  reward  of  his  crime.     Instead  of  obeying,  he  went  to 
Sparta,    where  he  remained  some  time ;    but  being  driven 
^Sade»f  thence,  at  last  he  fled  to  Asia  Minor,  and  persuaded  Tissa- 
phernes  to  furnish  him  with  means  to  aid  Athens.     This  was 
done,  and  after  a  series  of  victories,  he  went  home  and  was  received 
with  applause    and   acclamations.      But  while  he  was  on  a  visit  to 
the  Persian  satrap,  his  fleet  was  defeated  by  the  Spartans.     This  rous- 
ed the  resentment  of  Athens,  and  Alcibiades  was  again  driven  into  ex- 
ile.    The  Athenians  were  victorious  until  3600,  when   Ci- 
•^SfJTiti  nion  was  surprised,  and  his  fleet  destroyed  by  Lysander,  in 

elan  war  cios  •  *        ^^  .^  _  *  •/          ^        . 

ed.       the   battle   of    /Egos   Potamos  who  subsequently  invested 

"B-.o!404?'  Athens,  which  he  took  after  a  siege  of  three  months,  and  the 

Peloponnesian  war  was  closed.     Athens  sinks  in  the  dust, 

Sparta  domineers  over  all  Greece,  and  becomes  the  object  of  universal 

odium  for  forty-one  years.     This  period  of  Spartan  dominion  may  be 

divided  into  three  parts,  viz. 

10  Years  rigid,  rugged,  undisputed  dominion  * 

23      "     superiority  disputed  and  painfully  supported  \  over  Greece. 
8      "     dominion  feebly  asserted  j 

Thirty  tyrants  devoted  to  the  interest  of  Sparta  were  placed  in  3600 
over  the  prostrate  Athenians,  and  the  streets  of  their  city  were  infested 
with  spies  subservient  to  their  cruel  conquerors.  But  by  a  secret  and 


62  HISTORYOFGREECE. 

daring  plan  the  intrepid  Thrasybulus,  3601,  delivered  them 
hrasybuius.  ^om  ^  despotism  of  these  tyrants. 

The  history  of  the  principal  personages  who  figured  in  the  Persian 
and  Peloponnesian  wars,  may  be  summarily  related  as  follows.: — 

MILTIADES The  battle  of  Marathon  covered  Miltiades  with  glory. 

But  failing  in  an  attack  upon  Paros,  and  returning  dangerously 
wounded,  he  was  accused  of  treason,  and  sentenced  to  pay  a  fine  of 
fifty  talents — about  $50,000.  Unable  to  pay  this  fine,  he  was  thrown 
into  prison,  where,  in  a  few  days,  he  died  of  his  wounds. 

THEMISTOCLES  was  a  man  of  splendid  military  and  political  talents, 

and  the  head  of  the  democratic  party.     Ambitious  to  the  last 

Themistocies.degree,  he  hesitated  at  no  measure  which  he  supposed  might 

contribute  to  his  advancement,  and  the  ruin  of  his  rivals. 

Still  he  loved  his  country,  and  chose  to  rise  by  promoting  her  glory 

and  greatness. 

ARISTIDES,  the  head  of  the  aristocratic  party,  and  the  rival  of  The- 
mistocles,  though  he  did  not  exhibit  the  address  and  versatile  talents  of 
that  great  man,  possessed  very  eminent  abilities.  In  uprightness  and 
disinterested  devotion  to  the  public  good,  he  stood  without  a  superior 
among  the  virtuous  great  men  of  antiquity.  When  banished  by  the 
Ostracism,  he  raised  his  hands  to  heaven,  and  exclaimed,  "  May  my 
country  never  have  occasion  to  regret  Aristides." 

PAITSANIAS,  one  of  the  victors  at  Plataea,  notwithstanding  his  mili- 
tary talents,  was  too  much  the  slave  of  his  own  selfishness  and  arro- 
gance, to  maintain  the  leading  influence  which  he  once  possessed.  His 
pride  and  cupidity  led  him  into  the  commission  of  treasonable  prac- 
tices. Taking  refuge  from  the  indignation  of  his  countrymen,  in  the 
temple  of  Minerva,  he  perished  of  starvation  ;  his  sanctuary  having 
been  surrounded  by  a  wall,  of  which  his  own  mother,  with  the  true 
Spartan  spirit,  laid  the  first  stone. 

The  character  of  Leonidas  is  written  in  the  sacrifice  of  Thermopylae. 

CIMON  was  the  son  of  Miltiades,  and  appears  to  have  been  equally 

distinguished  for  his  talents  and  his  virtue.     His  military 

Ch"Snon.°f  career  was  marked  by  a  series  of  the  most  splendid  victories, 

which  humbled  the  mighty  Persian  empire,  and  made  his 

country  illustrious   and   powerful.     He  possessed  a  "  generosity  of 

character,  which  delighted  equally  in  acts  of  private  bounty,  and  of 

public  munificence." 

PERICLES  for  forty  years  controlled  the  Athenian  mind,  directed  the 
Athenian  taste,  and  appropriated  the  spoil  that  Cimon,  the  successful 
and  brilliant  warrior  had  won,  and  the  treasuries,  intended  as  a  com- 
mon fund,  to  the  embellishment  of  Athens.  Pericles  employed  the 
genius  of  Phidias,  the  greatest  of  the  Greek  sculptors,  to  adorn  the 
temples  and  other  buildings  with  statues.  He  ruled  the  people  by  his 
address  and  elegance,  taste,  wealth,  and  munificence.  But  his  ambi- 
tion carried  him  too  far ;  through  his  influence,  Athens  was  led  to  the 
most  unjust  exactions  from  her  allies,  and  finally,  3573,  plunged  into 
the  Peloponnesian  war.  He  was  a  consummate  orator  and  statesman, 
perhaps  unmatched  in  address.  Amidst  all  his  ambition  and  vanity,  he 
seems  to  have  loved  his  country ;  and  he  boasted  on  his  death-bed,  that 


HISTORY     OF     GREECE.  63 

he  had  never  caused  an  Athenian  to  put  on  mourning1.    He  died, 3575, 
in  the  second  year  of  the  Peloponnesian  war. 

In  the  year  3602,  we  have  the  expedition  of  Cyrus  the  younger, 
governor  of  Asia  Minor,  against  his  brother  Artaxerxes,  king  of  Per- 
sia.    Having  collected  an  army  of  100,000  barbarians,  and 
Expeditionof  13,000  Greeks,  under  pretence  of  subduing  some  tribes  north 
ymimger    of  the  Black  Sea,  he  marched  to  Cunaxa,  where  he  met  his 
AB?c.402<!2  brother.    A  battle  ensued,  in  which  Cyrus  was  killed,  in  sin- 
gle combat  with  the  enraged  king,  and  the  army  of  the  Greeks 
reduced  to  10,000.     Finding  themselves  deserted  by  the  Persians,  and 
their  generals  treacherously  murdered,  they  chose  Xenophon  for  their 
leader,  and  commenced  their  march  homeward.    Before  them 
R«^atoftheare  the  savages  of  Asia,  behind  them  a  hostile  army.     Over 
A  M   3603  mounta'ns>  across  rivers,  through  deserts,  they  directed  their 
B.C.  401.    course  to  Trebizond,  the  nearest  Greek  settlement.     From 
thence  they  went  home  by  water,  and  were  ready  to  engage 
with  Sparta,  against  the  king  of  Persia,  in  a  war  to  deliver  the  Greeks 
of  Asia  Minor  from  his  yoke. 

For  six  years,  from  3604  to  3610,  this  war  was  carried  on  in  Asia 
Minor — the  Spartans  always  victorious.  At  the  same  time,  Sparta  was 
exercising  her  authority  with  a  high  and  tyrannical  hand  over  Greece. 
In  consequence  of  this  oppression,  the  Corinthian  league,  to  which 
Persia  was  a  party,  was  formed,  between  Corinth,  Thebes,  and  Argos. 
Agesilaus,  the  king  of  Sparta,  was  recalled  from  Asia  Minor,  to  defend 
his  country  against  the  formidable  power  of  this  league.  From  this 
time,  the  Spartan  supremacy  declined  ;  and  Athens,  having  been  de- 
livered from  the  thirty  tyrants,  was  finally  restored  by  Conon  to  some 
degree  of  importance.  Her  long  exercised  dominion  of  the  sea  was 
recovered,  and,  by  means  of  Spartan  spoils,  her  prostrate  walls  were 
rebuilt. 

In  3617  the  Spartans  made  peace  with  the  Persians,  in  the  treaty  of 
Antalcidas,  in  which  the  Persians  agreed  to  abandon  all  the  Greek 
cities,  and  engaged  to  protect  Sparta. 

In  3623  a  Spartan  army,  on  its  way  to  Thrace,  entered  Thebes  under 

dpartans    tne  mas^  °f  friendship,  seized  its  towers  and  citadel,  and  for 

seize  Thebes,  nearly  five  years  kept  possession  of  the  city.     In  3627,  in  a 

B.C.  38i. '  most  heroic  and  daring  enterprise,  it  was  delivered  by  Pelo- 

Battieof   pidas  and  Epaminondas.     After  trying  for  several  years  to 

Leuctra.    recover  the  city,  the  Spartans  entered  Bseotia,  3633,  and  at 

B  c.  38i.    Leuctra  were  completely  defeated  by  the  Thebans. 

The  Thessalians,  oppressed  by  the  tyranny  of  Alexander,  of  Pherae, 

invited  Pelopidas  to  their  deliverance.     Being  defeated  and 

ABac.lro4'  ta^en  prisoner  in  the  first  engagement,  he  was  liberated  by 

Pelopidas    Epaminondas,  and  afterwards,  a  second  time  encountering 

goestojhea-  Alexander  in  battle,  he  defeated  him,  but  was  slain  in  the 

•cld5onia.    ""  pursuit.  Between  his  two  Thessalian  campaigns,  he  had  been 

despatched  to  Macedon  to  adjust  the  claims  of  the  rival  sons 

of  Amyntas,  and,  on  his  return  to  Thebes,  he  brought  with  him  as  a 

hostage,  Philip,  the  youngest  son  of  the  king. 

The  Thebans,  under  Epaminondas,  entered  Laconia  and  pursued 


64  HISTORYOFGREECE. 

the  Spartans  to  the  gates  of  their  capital,  where,  "  for  the  first 


tjme,  the   Spartan  women  beheld  the   smoke  of  an  enemy's 
B'.C.  363.'  camp."      Soon    after    this,  the    Thebans    vanquished    the 
Spartans    at  Mantinea,   but   in  the  battle  lost  their   leader 
Epaminondas. 

In  the  year  3044,  Philip  stole  from  Thebes,  and,  at  the  age  of  twenty, 
gained  possession  of  the  throne  of  Macedon.  To  the  natural  fierceness 
and  vigor  of  the  barbarian,  he  united  all  the  accomplishments  that 
Grecian  literature  could  bestow,  having  enjoyed  all  the  advantages  of 
instruction,  under  the  wisest  sages  of  the  brightest  age  of 
Chapwiip  °f  Greece  —  heard  the  most  illustrious  philosophers,  and  witness- 
ed the  military  operations  of  the  greatest  generals.  Cool, 
politic,  shrewd,  wily,  ambitious,  and  enterprising,  his  address  and 
dexterity  have,  perhaps,  never  been  equalled.  He  had  to  establish  a 
throne  claimed  by  several  competitors  supported  by  neighbouring 
states,  to  reform  his  court,  and  to  introduce  civilization  among  a  peo- 
ple until  then  uncivilized. 

The  Athenians,  now  the  chief  power  in  Greece,  owned  towns  on 

the  coast  of  Macedon,  and  consequently  Philip  was  always  at  variance 

with  Athens.     His  efforts  were  also  directed  against  the  city  of  Byzan- 

tium, and  the  Athenian  towns  on  the  Hellespont  and  the 

Tjfh?™a^sS  Propontis.    He  next  turned  his  arms  against  the  Thessalians, 

a  distracted,  refractory  people,  whose  country  he  subdued, 

and  added  to  Macedon.   TheEpirots,  Illyrians,  Thracians,  Mygdonians, 

and  Paeonians  were  his  enemies.     By  the  year  3656,   he  had  over- 

run them  all  ;    attacked   Euba,    taken  Olynthus,    and  marched  vic- 

torious to  the  gates  of  Greece  ;  when  here,  he  was  invited  to  act  as 

umpire  between  the  contending  parties  in  the  sacred  war, 

ii.c;  354°  assisted  in  subduing  the  sacrilegious  Phocians,  was  made  a 

member  of  the  Amphyctyonic  council,  and  twice  defended 

the  consecrated  ground  at  Delphi  from  violation. 

Leaving  the  pass  of  Thermopylae  defended,  he  returned  home  to  de- 
vote himself  to  the  internal  improvement  of  his  kingdom,  and  the  or- 
ganization of  his  troops  and  court.     In  3666  he  again  entered  Greece, 
fell  upon   Elatea,  a  strong  place,  took  it,  and  put  there  a  garrison. 
This   roused    the   Athenians  and  Thebans,  who  united  in  a  league 
against  him,  but  were  defeated  by  him  at  Cheroncea.     After 
Battle  of   treating  the  subdued  Greeks  with  the  greatest  lenity,  he  as- 
AhM°3666.  sembled  them  at  Corinth,  recited  their  former  injuries  from 
BC.  338.  Persia,  and  offered  to  put  himself  at  their  head,  and  march 
into  Asia.     He  reminded  them   of  the  aggressions  of  the 
Persians,  of  the  inroad  of  Xerxes  with  his  millions,  and  the  glorious 
triumph  at  Marathon  ;    of  Miltiades,  with  his  little  handful  of  men, 
overcoming  1  10,000  Persians  ;    of  Leonidas,  with  his  300,  resisting, 
and  giving  his  life  rather  than  have  the  land  tarnished  with  the  foot- 
stePs  °f  a  barbarian.     The  Athenians  bowed  to  Philip,  and 


parwto    appointed  him  their  generalissimo.     With  the  greatest  gene- 
maAsiamt°  ral  that  ever  lived,  and  the  most  spirited  troops  that  ever  a 
isasMssinat-  general  nacl'  he  thought  of  nothing  but  glory  and  victory. 
«d,A.M.3668.  But  in  the  midst  of  this  successful  career,  he  was  assassin- 


ANCIENT     HISTORY.  65 

AtoaiJdeV  ate^  ky  Pausanias,  ar*d  his  son  Alexander  succeeded  to  his 

succeeds  him.th  rone,  3668. 

Before  Alexander  could  embark  for  Asia,    he    had  to  reconquer 

Greece.     Having  taken  the  city  of  Thebes,  burned  it  to  the  ground, 

and  sold  its  inhabitants  into  slavery,  which  terrified  the  other  cities 

Battle  of  the  mto  submission,  he  passed  into  Asia,  and  in  3671  gained  the 

Granicus.    battle  of  the  Granicus,  and  conquered  Asia  Minor.     Pursuing 

Battle  of    his  victorious  career,  in  3672,  he  gained  the  pass  of  Issus,  the 

key  to  Syria.     Marching  southward,  he  laid  siege  to  Tyre, 

which,  after  an  obstinate  resistance  of  seven  months,  yielded  to  his  arms. 

Gaza,  after  a  siege  of  three  months,  opened  her  gates,  and 

atbeela.    T  without  any  farther  obstruction,  he  entered  Egypt.     Return- 

AKC  Mi3'  inS  fr°m  EgyP1-  at  Arbela,  3673,   he  met  and  completely 

Macedonem-  overwhelmed  the  king  of  Persia,  subverted  the  Persian,  and 

pire  founded.  founded  the  Macedonian  empire. 

In  the  organization  of  this  vast  empire,  Alexander  first  marched  into 

the  east  to  receive  the  submission  of  the  countries  subject'to  the  Persian 

dominion,  then  returned  to  Babylon,  which  he  aimed  at  restoring  to  its 

ancient  splendour,  and  making  the  seat  of  empire.     But  here, 

Alexander.  in  tne  midst  of  mirth,  revelry,  and  intoxication,  his  projects 

were  abruptly  terminated  by  death,  3681. 

4-M.  3681.       The  generals  of  Alexander,  all  unprincipled  and  ambitious 
men,  were  anxious  for  a  division  of  the  empire;    but  that 
being  a  delicate  and  difficult  thing,  they  set  up  two  mock  kings,  Phi- 
lip Aridaeus  and  Alexander  ^Egus ;  one  an  ideot,  and  the  other  an  in- 
fant.    The  authority  of  their  guardians,  Eumenes  and  Per- 

DeathofEu-    ,.  J,        T->      j-  i-iiJ- 

menos  and  diccas,  was  disputed.  Perdiceas  was  killed  in  trying  to 
Perdiccas.  sub(]ue  Ptolemy  of  Egypt,  and  Eumenes  was  pursued  from 
province  to  province,  the  whole  extent  of  the  empire,  by  the  other  gen- 
erals, until  3689,  when  he  was  betrayed  by  his  own  soldiers,  and  de- 
livered to  his  enemies. 

_  After  the  death  of  Eumenes,  Antigonus  looked  upon  him- 

315-301.    self  as  lord  of  Asia,  and  in  the  course  of  nine  years  found 
Antigonus.  himself  so.     The  principal  resistance  he  met  with  was  from 
Ptolemy  of  Egypt,  with  whom  he  contended  about  Syria, 
Palestine  and  Cyprus.     It  was  soon  discovered  that  his  grasping  am- 
bition was  not  to  be  satisfied  with  Asia  alone.     He,  or  rather   his  son, 
marched  into  Europe,  took  Athens  from  Cassander,  besieged  Rhodes, 
conquered  most  of  the  Peloponnesus,  destroyed  the  family  of  Alexan- 
der, and,  3698,  assumed  the  title  of  king,  which  last  example  was  fol- 
lowed by  the  other  generals. 

Ptolemy,  Seleucus,  Lysimachus,  and  Cassander,  united  their  forces, 
power  and  means  against  Antigonus  and  his  son  Demetrius. 
Biapsus0f    At  the  battle  of  Ipsus,  Antigonus  was  killed,  and  Demetrius 
BC  so*?   ^e(*  ^rom  l^e  scene  °f their  defeat.     But  though  he  had  lost 
Asia,  he  still  retained  Egypt,  Greece,  Tyre  and  Sidon.     Be- 
fore the  battle,  he  had  been  received  and  adored  as  a  god  in  (Jreece; 
but  after  he  came  from  Asia  Minor,  the  ports  of  Greece  were  shut 
against  his  fleet,  and  the  gates  against  his  army.     He  then  went  to 
Thrace,  plundered  the  cities  subject  to  Lysimachus,  returned,  and  was 

9 


66  ANCIENT     HISTORY. 

Adventures  again  deified  at  Athens,  where  he  heard  that  he  had  lost 
Poieircetes!"  Cyprus.  He  next  received  a  message  from  Alexander  of 
Macedon,  requesting  his  assistance  against  Lysimachus;  but 
by  the  time  he  arrived  at  the  scene  of  contest,  the  storm  had  blown 
over,  and  Alexander  told  him  he  did  not  need  his  services ;  Demetrius 
answered,  however,  he  would  stay  and  feast  with  him.  He  did  so,  and 
at  a  signal,  his  troops  entered,  slew  Alexander,  and  Demetrius  became 
king  of  Macedon.  Thinking  he  could  now  fulfil  the  ambitious  designs 
of  his  father,  he  prepared  to  invade  Asia,  but  was  opposed  by  Lysima- 
chus and  Pyrrhus.  From  them  he  fled  to  Seleucus  for  aid,  and  by 
him  was  confined  on  an  island,  where  he  ended  his  days  in  hunting 
and  feasting  After  the  battle  of  Ipsus.  what  is  called  the 
»ion  of  Alex-  FINAL  DIVISION  of  Alexander's  empire  took  place.  To  Ptolemy 

8"dplrre.em  were  given  EGYPT,  LYBIA,  PALESTINE,  and  CCELO-SYRIA. 
To  Seleucus,  ASIA,  except  Palestine,  Pergamus,  and  Bithy- 
nia  ;  Lysimachus  had  THRACE,  PERGAMUS,  and  BITHVNIA;  Cassander, 
MACEDON  and  GREECE.  The  world  became  Hellenized.  The  Greek 
language  and  culture  prevailed  wherever  there  were  Greek  princes; 
and  there  were  Greek  princes  wherever  Alexander  had  conquered 
From  the  death  of  Alexander  until  this  period,  the  world  had  been  one 
scene  of  carnage  and  slaughter  ;  mankind  became  accustomed  to  cru- 
elty, wantonness,  bloodshed,  and  crime,  and  Alexander's  fifty  generals 
were  reduced  to  four. 

MACEDON  AFTER  THE  DIVISION  OF  THE  EMPIRE.     Cassander  married 
Thessalonica,  the  sister  of  Alexander;  and  the  court,  during  his  reign, 
and  that  of  his  three  sons,  presents  a  scene  of  horror  almost  unparal- 
leled in  the  pages  of  history.     To  him  succeeded  Demetrius, 

"cedon.  a"  who  was  attacked  and  driven  out  by  Lysimachus  and  Pyr- 
rhus. The  latter  soon  expelled  the  former  and  reigned 
alone.  Then  we  have  old  Seleucus  from  Asia,  then  Meleager,  Cerau- 
nus,  Antipater,  Sosthenes,  and  ultimately  we  have  the  family  of  Deme- 
trius restored  in  the  person  of  Antigonus  Gonatus.  All  these  kings 
succeeded  in  the  space  of  twenty-two  years,  during  which  time  there 
were  but  two  kings  in  Egypt  and  three  in  Asia. 

AM  3750       ^y  tne  year  3750  we  have  passed  the  Macedonian  period, 

B.c.254.'  and  arrived  at  the  Roman,  Achaean,  and  Parthian. 

Achaean        The  Achaean  League  was  a  union  of  twelve  cities  ostensi- 

League.    yy  fQT  common  defence  against  the  kings  of  Macedon,  but  it 

Aram*  and  was  of  no  importance  until  Aratus,  a  celebrated  son  of  Sicy- 

PhiloiKEinen.  ,  ,     J T,  .          ,   ,.  j     i_         •       /•  j  .• 

one,  by  a  bold  enterprise  delivered  the  city  from  a  domestic 
tyrant  and  united  it  to  the  league,  3760. 

At  this  time  Athens,  Corinth,  and  Sparta,  were  fettered  by  Macedo- 
nian Garrisons.  Aratus,  in  the  night,  climbed  the  wall  of  Corinth,  sur- 
prised the  army  of  Antigonus,  delivered  the  city,  and  Corinth  became 
a  part  of  the  league.  Through  the  exertions  of  Aratus,  the  Argolians, 
Messenians,  and  Athenians,  also  joined  it.  This  was  the  last  organ- 
ization of  Greece,  and  in  it,  as  actors,  we  have  Aratus  and  Philopos- 
men,  who  are  called  the  last  of  the  Greeks.  From  this  time  there  is 
a  constant  struggle  between  Macedon  and  the  league;  but  on  the  part 
of  the  league  without  one  rational  object  being  accomplished  for  which 
it  was  formed.  During  its  entire  existence  the  members  of  it  were  at 


ANCIENT     HISTORY.  67 

war  with  each  other,  or  embroiled  with  the  savage  ^Etolians  and  the 

Spartans.     Finally  we  see  them  admitting  Antigonus  Doson  into  their 

country,  and  giving  him  a  free  passage  through  the  isthmus  of  Corinth 

to  fight  their  battles  with  the  Spartans,  whom  he  defeated  in  the  fa- 

mous battle  of  Sellasia.     This  scene  of  confusion  continued  until  the 

arrival  of  the  Romans  under  Flaminius.      Having  defeated   Philip 

Cynocephaie.  °^  Macedon  in  the  battle  of  Cynocephale,  3808,  he  proclaim- 

A.M.  38U8-  ed  all  Greece  free  and  independent.  This  procured  for  the  Ro- 

mans the  name  of  the  patrons  of  Greece,  and  insensibly  pav- 

ed the  way  to  their  universal  dominion.     In  a  second  Macedonian  war, 

Pydna.     tne  Romans  were  again  victorious,  and  having  gained  the 

A.M.  3836.  battle  of  Pydna,  carried  Perseus,  the  last  king  of  Macedon,  in 

chains  to  Rome. 


AM  3500  ^he  history  of  Rome  under  its  kings  belongs  to  the  for- 
mer period  ;  at  the  commencement  of  the  present,  3494,  two 
consuls  were  elected  with  power  equal  to  that  of  the  kings.  The  se- 
nate were  a  regularly  organized  body,  whose  power  continued  to  in- 
crease for  many  ages.  The  people  at  this  time  being  divided  into  two 
orders,  patricians  and  plebeians,  the  consuls  were  chosen  from  the  for- 
mer, and  united  the  sacerdotal  with  the  political  office.  For  fifteen 
years  the  Romans  struggled  against  the  attempts  of  their  king  Tar- 
quin,  and  at  the  same  time  a  contest  was  carried  on  amongst  them- 
selves, growing  out  of  the  distinction  of  patrician  and  plebeian.  The 
patricians  had  the  preponderance  in  their  elections,  because  the  people 
voted  in  artificial  classes  called  centuries.  The  plebeians,  3511,  retir- 
,  ed  to  Mons  Sacer.  To  satisfy  them  the  office  of  tribune 

Office  of  ,      ,  .,  J  ,      - 

Tribune,    was  created  ;  but  the  tribunes  were  possessed  of  mere  nega- 

te' ^l/'  tive  restraining  power.     They  were  not  permitted  to  come 

into  the  senate-house,  but  were  allowed   only  to  sit  at  the 

door  ;  they  could  not  propose  any  law,  but  they  could  stop  the  consuls 

and  senators  from  proceeding  in  any  measure.     To  prevent  the  con- 

founding of  distinct  offices,  we  may  mention  that  there  were  two  prin- 

cipal kinds  of  tribunes,  viz.  military  tribunes,   with  military  power; 

popular  tribunes,  with  mere  negative  power;  to  these  for  a  period  may 

be  added  consular  tribunes. 

At  last,  3537,  military  tribunes  were  no  more  elected  ;  and  it  was 

resolved  to  have  two  consuls,  one  from  the  patricians,  and  the  other 

from  the  plebeians,  with  power  to  call  together  the  senate,  the  army, 

Decemviri  an(^  tne  Pe°P^e'  3555.     In  the  time  of  the  great  Pericles  the 

A.M.  3555.  Decemviri  were  elected,   with  authority  to  frame  a  code  of 

'    laws,  which  were  called  the  twelve  tables;  but  they  abused 

their  power,  and  the  office  was  soon  abolished.     Another  office  was 

that  of  Dictator,  a  magistrate  invested  with  unlimited  power. 

Dictator.       .  ,,        .  a*  •   11  j    j  j  -i        j- 

All  other  offices  were  partially  suspended,  and  the  dictator 
was  absolute  master  of  the  lives,  liberty,  and  fortunes  of  the  Roman 
people.  If  there  were  convulsions  in  the  city,  he  would  still  them  in 
a  moment.  When  the  army  had  met  with  great  disasters,  and  it  was 
necessary  to  make  great  exertions,  he  could  command  the  persons  and 
purses  of  the  citizens. 

The  office  of  Censor,  simple  at  first,  was  afterwards  of 
Cew»r.    gfeat  p0wer  and  dignity.     The  fir*t  business  of  the  Censor 


68  ANCIENT     HISTORY. 

was  to  take  an  account  of  the  peorle  and  their  estates;  then  to  exam- 
ine into  the  morals  of  public  men,  with  power  even  to  expel  a  senator. 
The  Praetor,  treasurer,  commissary,  provider,  took  care  of 
Praeter.     ^g  fun(]Si  and  provided  for  the  army. 

Aediies.         Aediles  had  the  care  of  the  public  buildings.     There  were 

Vestals,     also  Vestals,  who  took  care  of  the  sacred  fire.    The  plebeians 

could  not  exercise  any  sacerdotal  power;  wherefore,  after  the 

plebeians  were  admitted  to  the  consulate,  the  Romans  created  separate 

officers    called    Pontiff's,    with    the   highest    ecclesiastical 

rotitirts. 

power. 

The  Agrarian  Law  was  a  source  of  eternal  contest.  The  Romans 
had  been  going  on  in  one  uninterrupted  series  of  conquests,  and  had 
always  appropriated  a  part  of  the  conquered  lands  to  themselves. 
These  were  put  up  for  sale,  and  of  course  bought  by  the  patricians, 
who  had  farms  all  over  Italy.  A  law  was  made  forbidding  any  per- 
son's having  more  than  500  acres  of  land;  the  surplus  was  given  to 
the  poor. 

A  M  3614       ^e  R°mans'  f°r  aDOUt  500  years  from  the  foundation  of 

the  city,   were  surrounded  by  enemies — the  Gauls  in  the 

north,  the  states  of  Magna   Graecia  in  the  south,  and  the  Tuscans, 

Umbrians,  Samnites  and  Latins,  their  nearer  neighbours.     Courage 

was  common  to  them  all,  but  the  cunning  of  the  Romans  enabled  them 

to  gain  the  ascendency.     The  Gauls,  3614,  besieged  Clusium.     The 

Romans   sent   ambassadors    commanding  them   to   return, 

by°ufebGluud  which  they,  however,  disregarding,  marched  to  Rome,  took 

the  city  and  burned  it. 

The  Romans,   who   had  always  been  at  peace  with  the  Samnites, 

were  invited  to  protect  the  city  of  Capua,  which  was  attacked  by  the 

enemy.       Upon  their  refusing,   the    Capuans    surrendered 

uie^amnltes.  the ir  city,  saying  that  the  Romans  would  surely  protect  their 

own.     The  consequence  was,  a  war  with  the  Samnites  for 

ten  years. 

The  Romans  next  turned  their  arms  against  the  Tarentines,  a  Spar 
tan  colony,  who  applied  for  assistance  to  Greece.     The  great  Pyrrhus 
was  sent  to  their  aid.     But  the  Romans  were  always  ulti- 
De^gpyr"  mately  victorious;    and  in   Italy  the  usual  good  fortune  of 
Pyrrhus  forsook  him.     In  admiration  of  the  Roman  valour, 
he  was  heard  to  exclaim,  "  With  what  ease  could  I  conquer  the  world, 
had  I  the  Romans  for  soldiers,  or  had  they  me  for  their  king." 

By  the  year  3740,  the  Romans  had  conquered  all  Italy,  and  their 
career  of  foreign  glory  commences  by  a  successful  war  with  ^Car- 
thage. 

The  Roman  sun  is  rising  in  splendour,  and  the  Grecian  sun  is 
setting. 

The  famous  year  3750,  is  the  tenth  year  of  the  fast  Punic 
Punic  vmg.  war,  by  which  Sicily  and  the  dominion  of  the  sea  is  trans- 
ferred from  Carthage  to  Rome.  By  the  second  Punic  war, 
which  terminates  3803,  the  Empire  of  the  West  is  transferred  to 
Rome.  By  the  third,  terminating  3858,  the  city  of  Carthage  is  laid 
in  ruins. 

The  rim  Panic  war  was  not  sufficiently  interesting  for  detail.     The 


ANCIENT     HISTORY.  69 

period  of  the  second  was  distinguished  by  two  of  the  greatest  kings  of 
that  fallen,  degenerate  age,  viz.  Philip  of  Macedon,  and  Antiochus  the 
Great.  These,  together  with  Hannibal  the  Carthaginian,  had  a  com- 
mon hatred  to  the  Romans,  and  were  successively  humbled  by  them— 
Hannibal  in  3803,  Philip  3808,  Antiochus  3813. 

At  the  commencement  of  these  wars,  the  Carthaginians  possessed  a 
coast  of  1000  miles  in  Africa,  and  rich  mines  in  Spain  ;  they  were 
masters  of  the  sea,  and  their  commerce  and  conquests  were  rapidly  ex- 
tending throughout  the  world.  With  a  jealous  eye,  their  progress 
was  viewed  by  the  Romans,  until  Hannibal,  the  governor  of  Spain, 
burning  with  revenge,  and  animated  by  a  thirst  for  glory,  laid  siege  to 

Saguntum,  a  city  under  the  protection  of  Rome.     This  was 
Sawken.m  considered  a  declaration  of  war.     Saguntum  was  taken,  and 

its  flames  kindled  two  worlds.  Hannibal  advanced  along  the 
coasts  of  Spain  and  Gaul,  into  Italy,  conquering  as  he  went.  Before 
him  all  was  consternation,  and  behind  him  the  wasteful  effects  of  his 
plundering  army. 

,  At  Trebia,  in  the  north  of  Italy,  he  entirely  defeated  the  Ro- 

Battles  of  m,         .  J       .          .          ?  -, 

Trebia,  Thra- mans,  at  1  hrasimene  he  was  again  victorious,  and  at  Can- 
Slmcannaend  nae'  tne  slaughter  of  Roman  nobles  was  so  great,  that  three 

bushels  of  gold  rings  were  collected  and  sent  to  Carthage. 
Hannibal,  pursuing  his  triumphant  course  to  the  very  gates  of  Rome, 
there  waited  for  aid  from  Spain  and  Macedon.  But  the  Romans,  in- 
stead of  again  meeting  him  in  the  open  field,  sent  their  armies  to  pre- 
vent his  allies  from  joining  him.  Having  lost  two  large  armies,  and 

two  of  their  best  generals,  they  now  sent  the  younger  Scipio, 

Scipio  con-  oorirv         -.u  •_»     a       >  *r  •  i_ 

quers  Spain.  o800,  with  an  army  into  Spam.     Alter  conquering  the  coun- 
try, he  returned  home,  and  proposed  to  conduct  an  army  into 
PAfrfca!to  Africa;  in  this,  though  he  was  opposed  by  all  the  elders  of 
the  senate,  he  finally  prevailed.     Hannibal,  after  keeping 
possession  of  the  most   beautiful  parts  of  Italy  for  fifteen 
zama°     years,  was  called  home.     The  battle  of  Zama  was  fought 
"B'C'  20?3'  3803.     Hannibal  was  defeated,  and  Africa  was  transferred 

to  Rome. 

Greece  was  now  all  confusion.  War,  bloodshed,  hatred,  vengeance, 
reigned  universally.  Philip  of  Macedon,  was  no  better  than  the  rest, 
except  that  he  had  a  larger  army.  When  the  Romans  sent  their  ar- 
mies to  keep  him  from  aiding  the  Carthaginians,  the  smaller  states  of 
Greece,  beaddled  with  the  name  of  liberty,  and  being  enemies  of  Philip, 
joined  the  Romans,  who,  in  about  four  years,  conquered  Phi- 

Komana  con--j.  .        ,        .        ., '  ,     ,        n<-\n       i         •         i  • 

quer  Philip  in  lip  in  the  battle  of  Cynocephale,  3808,  leaving  him  a  name, 
cynocepimie!'a  crown,  and  a  little  kingdom,  on  condition  that  he  should 
B'C'  »s '  P3^  tnem  a  tribute>  and  make  no  pretensions  to  sovereignty 
over  his  neighbours.  Flaminius  proclaimed  liberty  to  all 
Greece — liberty  to  pay  tribute,  and  serve  the  Romans  for  ever.  An- 
tiochus the  Great,  who  was  reigning  in  Asia,  while  Hannibal  was 
gaining  laurels  in  Italy,  had  been  trying  to  recover  Parthia  and  Asia 
Minor,  which  was  divided  between  four  petty  princes.  He  had  con- 
quered Syria,  invaded  India,  and  would  have  soon  subjected  Asia  Mi- 
nor, had  he  not  been  arrested  by  the  Romans.  Hannibal,  when  he 
fled  from  the  field  of  Zama,  went  to  Asia,  and  became  the  counsellor 
of  Antiochus,  advising  him  to  attack  the  Romans  in  Sicily.  He  com- 


70  ANCIENTHISTORY. 

Antiochus  menced  the  war  in  Greece,  was  defeated  in  a  naval  engage- 
'idagnpsia.   ment,  and  driven  back  to  Asia  Minor.     Here  the  petty  pow- 
B'C' wi3'  ers  joined  tne  Romans  against  him,  and  he  was  totally  de- 
feated, 3813,  by  Scipio  Asiaticus,  in  the  battle  of  Magnesia. 
The  Egyptians,   threatened  by  Antiochus  and  Philip,   had  already 
Pydna      thrown  themselves  under  Roman  protection,  when,  in  3834, 
A.M.  3834   at  the  battle  of  Pydna,  the  Romans  conquered  Macedon,  and 
BXM'O.    carried  Perseus,  its  last  king,  in  chains  to  Rome. 

Though  the  Romans  had  proclaimed  liberty  to  Greece, 
Corinth  and  jn  3858  they  destroyed  Corinth,  the  capital  of  the  Achaean 

Carthage  ta-  T  J,          ,      J  -.     .  r,.        .  —  . 

ken.  League,  and  reduced  the  country  to  subjection.      I  he  same 

B'aue?'  Jear  Scipio  Africanus  the  Younger,  terminated  the  third  Pu- 
nic war  by  taking  the  city  of  Carthage. 

The  whole  world  is  Roman,    in  bondage   to  the   Roman  senate. 
There  were  kings,  many  kings,  but  all  trembled  at  the  Roman  nod. 
A  restless,  warlike  people,  cannot  be  without  employment.     All  foreign 
enemies  were  conquered,  and  we  shall  soon  see  the  fatal  consequences. 
From  A.M.  3860,  B.C.  144,  to  A.M.  3960,  B.C.  44.     In- 
lnterngl  con,ternal  convulsions  shake  the  whole  fabric  of  Roman  power, 
vuisions.      till  finally  the  Roman  constitution  is  overthrown,  and  indivi- 
duals trample  the  senate  in  the  dust.     Although  the  rule  in 
Spain  was  transferred  to  Rome,  by  the  successful  termination  of  the 
second  Punic  war,  it  cost  the  Romans  many  hard  efforts  to  subdue 
Numantia  tne  intel>i°r  and  distant  nations,  who  long  resisted  and  often 

A.  M.38&3.  rebelled.     Numantia,  3863,  a  city  in  the  interior,  assisted  by 

B.  c.  I4i.  tne  CeJtiberi  and  Lusitani,  baffled  the  Roman  arms  fourteen 
years.     The  celebrated  Viriathus  was  leader  of  tbe  Spanish  confede- 

Gracchus   racy,  till  he  was  treacherously  killed.     Tiberius  Gracchus, 

A.M  3871.  3871,  by  attempting  to  divide  the  lands  bequeathed  by  Atta- 

lus,  the  last  king  of  Pergamus,  among  the  people,  excited  a 

A.rM.C3S!3.  tumult  in  which   he   was  killed.      Caius   Gracchus,  3883, 

B.C.  121.  followed  the  example   of  his   brother,  and  shared  the  same 

Numidia    fate.     Jugentha,  3893,  a  dependent  king  of  Numidia,  having 

B.  c.  111.  braved  the  Roman  power  five  years,   was  dragged  in  chains 

to  Rome  by  Marcus  and  Sylla,   where  he  was  starved  to 

death  in  a  dungeon. 

The  Teutones  and  Cimbri  savage  tribes  of  Germany,    who  left  the 

wilds  of  their  country,    with  their  wives,  children,  flocks 

A.  M.  3913.  and  herds,  after  seeking  to  establish  themselves  in  the  mild- 

B.  c.  101.  er  c}imates  of  Gaul  and  Italy,  and  resisting  the  power  of 

Rome  for  eight  years,  were  annihilated,  3903,  in  one  battle,  just  as  they 

were  preparing  to  cross  the  Alps,  and  enter  Italy.     The  Social  War, 

3913,  put  to  a  frightful  test  the  supremacy  of  Rome.     This  was  a  war 

between  Rome  and  her  Italian  allies  or  Socii,  subjects,   call- 

,.,.    ed  allies,  who  demanded  the   right  of  Roman  citizenship, 

Social  War.  .        ."        •    i.      e        •        .     rt  j         •  i     • 

A.  M.3913.  that  is,  the  right  of  going  to  Rome  and  voting,  or  being  elect- 

B.  c.tfi.    ed  to  office.     300,000  soldiers  perished  in  this  war,  which 

lasted  until  the  Romans  artfully  weakened  their  enemies  by 

yielding  to  some,  what  they  demanded.     Next  Mithridates  broke  out 

ofPontus,  overran  Asia  Minor  and  Greece,  and  caused   to   be  killed 


ANCIENT     HSTORY.  71 

80,000  Roman  citizens,  that  were  in  Asia  Minor.  The  bloody  victories 
of  Sylla  in   Greece,  pressed  Mithridates  back  into  Pontus.     But  the 
atrocious  struggle  of  Marius  and  Sylb,  for  the  command  in  this  war, 
made  Rome  itself  a  scene  of  slaughter  and  carnage.     Twice  in  its  turn 
each  party  prevailed,  and  four  times  the  streets  of  Rome  were  deluged 
with  Roman  blood.    Marius  prevailed  the  second  time,  while 
A.aM.'3923.r his  rival  was   in  Greece;    and  Sylla  the  second  time  when 
B.C. si.    ne  returned  from  Greece.      After  a  war  of  two  years,Sylla 
prevailed,  was  appointed  Dictator,  but  abdicated  after  ruling  two  years. 
The  stage  is  now  to  be  filled  by  new  actors,   viz,    Cato,   Cicero, 
Casar,  Pompey,  and  Crassus.     Pompey  raised  an  army  himself,  and 
assisted  Sylla  to  subdue  the  Marian  faction  in  Italy  ;    he  was  succes- 
sively sent  to  Sicily,  where   he   defeated  Cneus    Carbo ;    to  Africa, 
where  he  routed  and  killed  Domitius;  and  to  Sp*in,  where  he  subdued 
Sertorius,  who,  like  Carbo,  had  fled  from  Sylla,  and  was  trying  to 
keep  up  the  Marian  faction.     Marcus  Lepidus,  a  restless,  intriguing, 
profligate  demagogue,    being   appointed   to   the  consulship,  after  his 
term  was   expired,  rushed  down  from    Cisalpine  Gaul  upon   Rome 
with  his  army,  and  was  defeated. 

Amid  the  confusion  and  disorder  of  these  times,  the  slaves 
Gtedfators.  and  gladiators  of  Italy  and  Sicily,  under  Spartacus,  for  three 
"Vc^i3'  years  desolated  Italy,  defeated  army  after  army,  and  threat- 
ened Rome  itself.      When  Pompey   returned  from  Spain, 
Crassus  was  on  the  eve  of  a  battle  with  these  slaves,  and  by  the  union 
of  their  two  armies  these  generals  were  victorious. 

In  the  same  year,  Mithridates  again  broke  loose  in  Asia  Minor,  was 
pursued  by  Lucullus  into  Armenia,  and  the  Roman  FOREIGN  CONQUEST 
is  RESUMED.  But  one  enemy  still  annoyed  the  Romans — the  pirates 
in  the  Mediterranean,  encouraged  by  Mithridates  and  Sertorius.  In 
the  short  space  of  four  months  Pompey  subdued  them,  and  Rome  again- 
possessed  the  dominion  of  the  sea.  In  the  mean  time,  the  soldiers  of 
Lucullus,  instigated  by  his  brother-in-law,  Clodius,  mutinied,  and  Mi- 
thridates recovered  his  kingdom.  In  3937  Pompev  was 

Mithridates  •      .  »,,•  u    •,    .  J°A  ,  r   J    •      i 

subdued,    sent  against  Mithridates,  and  after  a  three-years  war,  entirely 
"Vc  e?37'  subdued  him.    After  conquering  Syria,  regulating  Judea,  and 
establishing  the  Herod  family  in  the  person  of  Antipater, 
Pompey  returned  to  Rome,  and  had  a  triumph  never  before  exceeded 
in  splendour.     But  as  if  there  was   to  be  no  end  to  horror, 
conspiracy.  Cataline  formed  a  conspiracy  to  burn  the  city,  and  over- 
'Vc^i0'  tnrovv   ^e   Roman  Empire.     He  had  been  disappointed  in 
obtaining   the   consulship,  and  took  this  method  to  revenge  . 
himself  on  Cicero  his   opponent.    Happily  the  plot  was  discovered/ 
and  Cataline  driven  from  the  city,  3940. 

For  four  years,  from  3940  to  3944,  Rome  was  agitated  by  the  fla- 
gitious quarrels   and  intrigues  of  three  unprincipled  men,  Pompey, 
Crassus  and  C&sar,  who  each  had  his  partizans.     The  Roman  Se- 
nate had  before    ruled,  but  now  these  three  men,   united, 
'virate!"1  formed  ihe  first  triumvirate,  3944,  and  all  were  obliged  to 
Ag^^4-  submit.     Cato  resisted,  but  was  dragged  to  prison.     Pompey 
was  a  man  of  much  enterprize  and  unbounded  ambition,  unit- 
ed with  great  dignity.     He  could  never  help  displaying  his  superiofi- 


72  ANCIENT     HISTORY. 

ty.  Csesar  was  cunning,  intriguing,  profligate,  and  shrewd,  and 
capable  of  dissimulation.  Pompey  was  the  most  honest  man  ;  he  pre- 
ferred honesty  to  dishonesty,  if  he  could  as  well  carry  his  point ;  but 
Caesar  would  rather  be  dishonest;  he  liked  to  have  a  little  shrewdness 
mixed  with  his  dealings ;  he  was  the  greater  commander,  and  the  more 
eloquent  man.  The  triumvirate  divided  the  world.  Csesar  took  the 
two  Gauls  ;  Pompey  took  Spain  and  Africa  ;  Crassus  chose  Syria  and 
the  East.  Italy  was  given  nominally  to  the  senate.  Pompey  had  al- 
ready won  his  laurels,  and  therefore  remained  at  home.  Crassus  went 
to  gather  the  spoils  and  riches  of  the  East,  and  met  in  Parthia  a  most  de- 
plorable fate.  Betrayed  and  deserted  by  his  friends,  he  had  seen  his  sons 
and  his  troops  miserably  perish,  and  was  himself  killed  by 

Ca»ar  killed  c  ,.  /~i  i        •          •  i  •       j   i  •  J 

in  Parthia.  one  ot  his  generals.  Csesar  having  immortalized  his  name 
AgM(;3^L  in  eight  splendid  campaigns,  was  commanded  by  Pompey  to 
lay  down  his  arms,  disband  his  armies,  and  return  to  Rome. 
Caesar  refused  to  do  this,  unless  Pompey  would  also  disband  his 
troops,  and  marched  his  army  toward  Rome.  On  coming  to  the  Rubi- 
con, the  southern  boundary  of  Gaul,  to  pass  which  was  esteemed  trea- 
son, Caesar  paused;  but  exclaiming,  "the  die  is  cast,"  he  plunged 
into  the  river,  and  followed  by  his  devoted  soldiers,  went  like  a  tem- 
pest to  the  gates  of  Rome.  Pompey  and  the  senate  escaped  to  Greece, 
where  they  were  joined  by  Cato,  who  hated  both  generals,  but  thought 
Pompey  the  least  dangerous.  Thus  commenced  the  civil  war  between 
Pompey  and  Caesar. 

Rome  and  Italy  submitted  to  Caesar ;  but  Pompey  had  two 

Firsl  civU  -  ,  .     •>  .  ,  .    ,         ' 

war.      powerful  armies  in  Spam,  which  Caesar  had  to  conquer. 

A^.3^1'  After  accomplishing  this,  he  passed  into  Greece,  where  at 

Dyrrachium  he  was  defeated ;   but  collecting  his  forces,  he 

Pharsaiia.   totally  overthrew  Pompey  in  the  great  battle  of  PJiarsalia, 

Anc  3^'  3Q5&-     Pompey  fled  into  Egypt,  where  he  was  assassinated. 

Thus  ended  the  personal  contest  between  the  rivals. 
Egypt.  After  the  battle,  Caesar  went  to  Egypt  and  espoused  the 
cause  of  Cleopatra,  against  her  husband  and  brother,  Ptole- 
my Dionysius,  conquered  him,  and  placed  Egypt  under  Roman  dicta- 
tion. Pharnaces,  son  of  Mithridates  the  Great,  who  had  joined  Pom- 
pey, was  next  conquered  by  Caesar.  It  was  after  this  conquest  that  he 
wrote  his  much  celebrated  letter,  VENI;  VIDI;  vim; — /  came  ;  I  saw  ; 
1  conquered.  After  this  Caesar  returned  to  Italy,  from  whence  he  went 
to  Africa,  where  was  a  remnant  of  Pompey's  party,  under  Cato  and 
Scipio.  After  fighting  several  battles,  he  defeated  his  enemies  at  Thap- 
sus,  returned  to  Rome,  from  whence  he  embarked  for  Spain,  where  he 
conquered  Pompey's  two  sons,  Cneius  and  Sextus. 

Caesar  was  now  master  of  the  world.     But  Brutus  and 
Cthe  worid°  Cassius  were  republicans,  and  the  enemies  of  Caesar.     His 
love  of  power,  and  his  display  of  that  love,  together  with  a 
rumour  that  he  was  going  to  assume  the  title  of  king,  induced  Brutus 
and  Cassius,  with  sixty  senators,  to  form  a  dark  conspira- 
AA.aM.!3960?'  cy,   which  on  the  ides  of  March,  3960,   accomplished  his 
death.     But  he  left  behind  him  associates  worse  than  him- 
self, who  were  ready  to  avenge  him.     His  nephew,  Octavius,  a  youth 
of  eighteen,  but  with  as  much  deliberate  coolness  as  sixty  years  could 


HISTORY     OF     ROME.  73 

have  given  him,  undertook  to  revenge  his  uncle's  death,  and  found 
himself  opposed  by  Marc  Antony.     Octavius  saw  the  distressed  state 
of  the  empire,  with  the  senate  on  one  side  and  Marc  Antony  ort  the 
other.     By  pretending  to  be  a  simple-hearted  republican,  he  won  Ci- 
cero and  the  senate,  and  in  the  battle  of  Mutina  defeated  Antony  and 
drove  him  into  Gaul.     Repenting  of  his  rashness-,    he  wrote  a  very 
tender  letter  to  Antony,  desiring  his  friendship,  and  requesting  him  to 
return.  This  request  being  complied  with,  Antony,  Octavius,  and  Lepi- 
dus  met  on  an  island.     Before  they  rushed  into  each  other's  bosoms, 
however,  they  took  the   precaution  to  send  their  respective  servants, 
each  to  search  the  person  of  his  master's  friend,  lest  he  should  carry  a 
concealed  dagger.     After  dividing  the  power  among  themselves,  their 
first  work  was  to  annihilate  their  enemies.     The  friends  of  one  were, 
in  some  cases,  the  enemies  of  the  other,  and   each  surrendered  these 
friends.     Their  union,  3961,  was  called  the  second  triumvi- 
^virate""  rate<  an°l  tne  world  was  subject  to  them.     But  Brutus  and 
"Vr'^f1'  Cassius  were  still  in  the  East,  collecting  armies  and  uphold- 
ing the  standard  of  resistance.     Antony  and  Augustus  col- 
Phiiippi.    lected  their  forces  in  the  west.     In  3902  they  met  at  Phi- 
'Vc'422'  '*/"/"•     Brutus  had  his  army,  Cassius  had  his;  Antony  had 
his  army,  and  Augustus  had  his.     The  army  of  Cassius 
alone  was  defeated;  but  thinking  Brutus  too  was  conquered,  he  killed 
himself.     In  twenty  days  there  was  another  battle,   in  which  Brutus 
was  defeated  and  fell  on  his  sword.     Antony  and  Augustus  now  divid- 
ed the  world  between  them.     Antony  took  Greece,  Asia,  and  Egypt ; 
Augustus,  Spain,  Gaul,  Italy  and  Africa.     This  state  of  affairs  con- 
tinued for  ten  years,  during  which  time  Antony  lived  in  Egypt,  with 
Cleopatra,  neglecting  his  part  of  the  empire,  and  allowing  his  armies 
to  be  defeated  in  Parthia.     Augustus  in  the  meanwhile  was  actively 
engaged*     He  marched  his  army  into  the  north  of  Italy,   laid  waste 
a  district  of  twenty  miles,  drove  out  the  unoffending  inhabitants,  and 
planted  his  soldiers  there.     Among  the  number  deprived  of  tht-ir  farms, 
was  the  father  of  the  poet  Virgil;  but  his  son,  by  celebrating  in  his 
poems  the  praises  of  Augustus,  was  reinstated  in  his  patrimony.     Au- 
gustus was  always  cool  and  calculating,  prepared  for  any  emergency; 
while  Antony  was  dissipated  and  profligate,  and  spent  his  time  in  the 
meanest  pleasures.     Augustus  with  his  fleet  went  to  Greece;  Cleopa- 
tra, with  a  fleet  of  sixty  ships,  accompanied  Antony  in  pursuit  of  him. 
A  naval  engagement  ensued  at  Actium,  3974,  when  Cleopa- 
A^sffri   tra'  ^rom  a  mere  whim,  gave  the  signal  for  flight,  and  An- 
B.C.  so.'  tony,  finding  himself  deserted,  followed  her,  and  left  Augus- 
tus the  victory.     Cleopatra  fearing  she  should  be  carried  to 
Rome  to  grace  the  triumph  of  the  conqueror,  built  an  enormous  pile, 
on  which  she  placed  herself,  determined,  if  Octavius  took  the  place,  to 
set  fire  to  it.     Antony  understanding  that  she  was  dead,  stabbed  him- 
self; but  he  being  informed  that  she  was  still  alive,  caused  himself  by 
means  of  ropes  to  be  taken  into  the  tower,  that  he  might  die 
Death  of  jn  ner  presence.     Augustus  bv  surprise  took  the  tower,  and 

Antony  and    _..  .  ,   ,  ° .         .      J  .  .     ",         ,  .    .  ,  - 

cieopatrm.  Cleopatra,  to  avoid  falling  into  his  hands,  caused  herself  to 
be  bitten  by  an  asp.     Augustus  is  now  lord  of  the  world. 
10 


74  HISTORYOFROM        E. 


Summary  of  Roman  History  to  the  time  of  Au- 
gustus from  the  above. 

2o  PERIOD  (commonwealth)  250  years  from  kings  expelled,  3500,  to 

the  tenth  year  of  the  first  Punic  war,  3750,     CONQUEST  OK   ITALY. 

Tarquin  and  his  allies  routed  and  reduced,  3506.    The  Ro- 

DefeatofTar-man  character  and  policy    is    completely    developed  during 

qA.nM.3506.  this  rugged  period. — Incessant  wars   with  the  rebel  Latins, 

B.C.  498.   jEqUji   Volsci,    Sabines,  Tuscans,  and  Galli   Senones ;  till 

"at  last  the  Romans  reach  the  Gauls  in  the   north,  and   the 

Conquest  of  garnnites  anc]  Greeks  in  the  south.      Usually  victorious,   un- 

itaiy.  daunted  in  the  midst  of  disaster;  instead  of  craving  peace  of 

^B'C' m'  an  exulting  enemy,  they  appointed  a  dictator,   with   absolute 

power  to  control  their  lives  and  property,  and  concentrate  the 

energies  of  the  state  to  a  particular  point.     The  detail  would  present 

endless  repetitions  of  heroic  deeds  and  patriotic  devotion.      At  last,   in 

spite  even  of  the  victories  of  Pyrrhus,  the  Samnites  and  Greeks  had 

to  submit,  and  thus  the  Romans  reach  the  Greeks  and  Carthaginians 

of  Sicily.     (See  below.    1st  Punic.) 

(New  offices  and  new  magistrates  during  this  period  )  Dictator,  a 
terror  to  friends  and  enemies.  Tribunes  of  the  penple,  or  popular  tri- 
bunes to  satisfy  the  plebeians;  a  singular  magistrate,  originally  having 
only  a  veto  on  the.  senate  and  other  magistrates.  (Mons  Sacer.)  Mili- 
tary tribunes,  with  consular  power,  were  very  different ;  they  took 
the  place  of  consuls,  and  were  often  appointed  to  satisfy  the  people,  as 
consuls  must  be  patricians.  Frequently  appointed  between  3560  and 
3638,  when  they  were  abolished,  and  the  people  allowed  to  choose 
one  plebeian  consul.  Decemviri,  ten  men  instead  of  consuls,  with 
•power  to  frame  a  code  of  laws  ;  abolished  for  enormous  abuse  of  power, 
after  the  code  was  finished.  (Ap.  Claudius,  Virginia.) 

Civil  broils  during  this  period.  The  Plebeians  claim  a  division  of 
the  lands,  (agrarian  laws)  ;  also  a  share  in  the  public  honours  and 
offices;  a  right  to  intermarry  with  patricians  ;  and  a  right  to  vote  by 
tribes  instead  of  centuries,  which  made  a  poor  man's  vote  equal  to  the 
rich  man's  vote — with  all  these  ferments  at  home,  the  Romans  never 
relaxed  in  war. 

3i>  PERIOD  (commonwealth)  250  years  from  the  1st  PUNIC  WAR,  10th 
Foreign  Con-  year,  3750,  to  the  birth  of  Christ,  4000.  CONQUESTS 
punlc  War.  ABROAD,  (out  of Italy,)  with  a  frightful  interval  of  INTERNAL 
BAcM2^74be-  CONVULSIONS.  In  the  1st  Punic  war,  (1st  war  bteween 
gun.  Rome  and  Carthage),  the  Romans  triumph,  and  get  Sicily 

and  the  dominion  of  the  sea,  (3740 — 3764);  22  years  of  peace  succeed; 
then  we  have  the  2d  Punic,  the  most  famous  Punic  war,  (Hannibal's,) 
from  3786  to  3803,  17  years.  Carthage  (Hannibal)  was  victorious 
several  years,  till  about  3800,  when  the  tide  of  fortune  turned  in  favour 
of  the  Romans,  and  rolled  on  resistless  58  years  over  the  west, 
(Spain,)  south,  (Africa,)  and  east,  (Greece  and  Asia.)  Lords  of  Spain 
and  Africa  in  3803,  the  Romans  humbled  Macedon,  3808;  Asia,  An- 
tiochusthe  Great,  (see  Greece  and  Asia,)  in  3813;  at  the  same  time 


HISTORY      OF      ROME.  75 

entangling  Greece  and  Egypt,  ano\  the  petty  powers  of  Asia  in  a  deceit- 
ful alliance;  conquered  Macedon,  383(5 ;  destroyed  Corinth  and  Car- 
thage, 3858;  making  Africa  and  Greece  (Achaean  League)  Roman 
provinces.  Where  the  Roman  arms  did  not  penetrate,  the  terror  of 
the  Roman  name  awed  an  obsequious  world.  Thus  in  the  space  of 
58  years  (3800 — 3858)  Rome  swelled  into  Romania  or  Universal 
Rome.  Asia  was  tributary,  and  Egypt  under  Roman  guardianship. 
All  the  rest  were  Roman  provinces.  Then  succeed  internal  convul- 
sions. 

Period  of  internal  convulsions  from  385^  till  foreign  con- 
vuUiousC°n~  quests  are  resumed,  and  Asia  subdued  by  Pompey,  3939,  (81 
A'M  3364.  years)-  Numantia,  in  Spain,  rebels,  3864.  (See  Spain.) 
64  Numancia  The  popular  leaders,  Tiberius  Gracchus,  (3871,)  and  Caius 
83 Gracchus.'  Gracchus,  (3883,)  both  killed  in  the  tumults  which  they 
93Numidia.  excited  in  the  city.  The  horrid  Jugurtha,  dependent  king 
3Teutifm»  ofNumidia,  braved  and  baffled  the  Roman  armies  5  years, 
13  social  War.  (3893 — 3^93.)  At  last,  Marius  and  Sylla  dragged  this  mon- 
fatoryUa  D' "  ster  in  chains  to  Rome,  where  he  was  left  to  starve  9  days 
33Mithridaticin  a  dungeon.  For  8  years  the  German  savages,  Teutones 
and  Cimbri,  (3895—3903,)  ravaged  Gaul  in  Italy  till  they 
were  routed  and  slaughtered  by  Marius,  3903.  Social  war,  (war  of 
Rome  with  her  Italian  allies,  called  Socii,)  3913.  After  a  waste  of 
300,000  lives,  the  Italian  allies  obtained  the  right  of  citizenship,  (vot- 
ing and  holding  offices  at  Rome.)  Next  Mithridates  broke  out  of  Pon- 
tus,  overran  Asia  Minor  and  Greece,  and  caused  to  be  killed  80,000 
Roman  citizens  that  were  prowling  about  Asia  Minor,  (a  horrid  exe- 
cution!) The  bloody  victories  of  Sylla  in  Greece,  pressed  Mithridates 
back  into  Pontus.  But  the  atrocious  struggle  of  Marius  and  Sylla 
for  the  command  in  this  war,  made  Rome  itself  a  scene  of  slaughter 
and  carnage.  Twice  in  his  turn,  each  party  prevailed,  and  four 
times  the  streets  of  Rome  were  deluged  with  Roman  blood :  Marius, 
the  second  time,  while  Sylla  was  in  Greece;  and  Sylla,  the  second 
time,  when  he  returned  from  Greece.  (Young  Pompey,  Caesar, 
Cicero,  and  Cato,  begin  to  appear.)  Scrtorius  of  the  Marian  faction, 
dismembers  Spain,  (see  Spain.)  Pompey  has  to  subdue  a  rebellion  in 
Africa,  Sertorius  in  Spain,  the  slaves  and  gladiators  in  Italy,  (servile 
war,)  the  pirates  that  covered  the  Mediterranean,  and  finally  Mithri- 
dates, who  had  broken  loose  again  in  Asia  Minor. 

Foreign  conquests  resumed  with  intervals  of  civil  roars.  After  con- 
quering Mithridates,  Pompey  subjected  Asia  to  the  Eupirates,  3939. 
(Asia  h  id  long  been  tributary.)  Four  years  Rome  was  agitated  by 
the  fligitious  quarrels  and  intrigues  of  three  profligate  men,  Caesar, 
Pompey,  and  Crassus,  who  finding  all  Rome  (except  Cato  and  Cicero) 
A.M. 3900.  enlisted  in  favour  of  one  or  the  other,  united  their  interests, 
44  utTrium-  formed  the  first  triumvirate,  (  three  men  united.)  and  took  the 
Vc™sar,  Pom  charge  of  the  world  into  their  own  hands,  3944.  Pompey 
peyv(''r'a^ii".  had  already  won  his  laurels,  and  therefore  reposed  at  home. 
53Uivii  ar  Qrassus  went  to  Bather  the  spoils  and  riches  of  the  East, 
virate  ""  m  ar|d  met  in  Parthia  a  most  deplorable  fate.  Caesar  took  the 
^  idns°  two  Gauls  for  his  share,  and  immortalized  his  name  in  eight 
u  War  splendid  campaigns.  (See  Gaul.)  After  that,  the  world  was 


76  HISTORY      OF      SYRIA. 

not  large  enough  to  contain  two  such  illustrious  chiefs;  Pompey 
arrayed  the  forces  of  the  East,  and  Caesar  those  of  the  West,  and 
Pompey  being  defeated  at  Pharsalia,  in  Thessaly,  and  killed  in 
Egypt,  Caesar  had  only  to  conquer  Pompey's  sons  in  Spain,  and 
Cato  in  Africa,  to  be  undisputed  sovereign  and  dictator.  His  glory 
and  triumph  soon  terminated  in  his  tragic  death,  leaving  the 
world  to  be  disputed,  first  between  Octavius  Caesar  and  Mark  Antony, 
and  (after  they  united  with  Lepidus  in  the  2d  triumvirate)  between 
them  and  Caesar's  murderers,  (Brutus  and  Cassius.)  The  latter 
arrayed  the  forces  of  the  East  against  Octavius  and  Antony,  and  were 
conquered  at  Philippi,  3982.  Octavius  and  Antony,  after  dividing  the 
world  between  them  ten  years,  disputed  the  possession  of  it  at  Actium, 
when  Octavius  of  the  West  defeated  Antony  of  the  East,  and  remained 
sole  master  of  the  Roman  world,  3973. 

During  his  long  and  prosperous  reign,  he  disguised  the  most  per- 
fect despotism  under  the  ancient  forms  of  the   commonwealth.     And 
thus,  3973,   we  arrive  at  imperial  Rome,   (that  is,  Rome  gov- 
RO  ef  n°E3    ernea<  by  emperors.)  The  pacific  plans  of  Augustus  (Octavius) 
pire.  embraced  the  judicious  policy  of  diffusing  the  Roman  lan- 

guage and  institutions  over  the  whole  Roman  world.  Latin 
was  the  state  language,  of  the  whole  empire  ;  and  while  the  Greek  was 
the  popular  language  of  the  East,  and  the  language  of  science,  the  La- 
tin became  common  in  Africa,  Spain,  Gaul,  and  finally  in  Britain, 
which  was  not  added  to  the  Roman  empire  till  after  the  death  of  Au» 
gustus. 


Syria  after  the  death  of  Alexander. 

Syria,  or  Syro  Media,  under  the  Seleucidae,  was  not  merely  Syria 
Proper,  but  comprised  a  vast  extent  of  country,  from  the  Bosphorus  to 
the  Indus,  including  a  great  part  of  the  empire  of  Persia  in  Asia. 

KINGS  OP  SYRIA. 

SEI/EUCUS  I.  Nicator.  SELEUCUS  II.  Callinicus. 

ANTIOCHUS  I.  Soter.  SELEUCUS  III.  Ceranmis. 

ANTJOCHUS  II.  Theos.  ANTIOCHUS  III.  the  Great.* 

A  MS3703        Seleucus,  one  of  the  four  conquerors  of  Antigonus,  at  Ip- 
B.C.'MI.     sus,  received  Asia  as  his  share  of  the  spoils,  and  established 
his  capital  at  Antioch,  which  he  built,  besides  many  other 
Lysi'mactms!  cities.     He  wrested  Thrace  and  Mucedon  from  Lysimachus, 
Vc  saf'    kut  was  soon  a^ter  assassinated  by  Ptolemy  Ceraunus,  whom 
he  had  protected.     He  was   distinguished  for  justice,  cle- 
mency, and  love  of  learning ;  and  surnamed  Nicator,  from  his  success 

*  Prom  Seleucus  Nicator  to  Antiochus  the  Great,  Antiochus,  Antiochus ;  Se- 
leuous,  Seleucus. 

These  are  all  the  Greek  kings  of  Syria  that  are  important,  the  remainder  may  be 
found  in  the  Appendix. 


HISTORY     OP     EGYPT.  77 

in  war.     The  great  library  of  the  Athenians  was  restored  to  them  by 
this  prince. 

Syria,  under  Seleucus  Nicator  and  his  descendants,  as  far  as  Antio- 
chua  the  Great,  was  independent.  These  two  were  the  first  and  last 
great,  the  only  great  princes  of  the  Seleucidae. 

Ant.Theos.       Antiochus  Theos  saw  the  extremes  of  his  empire  falling 
A^M.  3744.    off  and  rebelling.     Parthia,  Bactria,  India,  and  Asia  Minor 

resisted  his  authority. 

AntaheGreat.     Antiochus  the  Great  thought  he  had  revived  the  lustre  of 
^B.c.'la2'    his  house  and  extent  of  his  empire,  but  he  was  the  last  inde- 
pendent and  first  vassal  king  of  Syria.     He  invaded  the  re- 
Tolted  provinces;  and  in  the  attempt  to  subdue  Asia  Minor  became 
Tributary  to  involved  in  war  with  Rome.     He  was«humbled  by  Scipio 
Rome.      Asiatieus,  in  the  battle  of  Magnesia,  and  treated  with  ex- 
B/C.  i9i.'  treme  severity.     The  remaining  Seleucidae  were  subject  to 

the  Romans. 

Seleucus  Philopater  and  Antiochus  Epiphanes  quarrelled,  and  their 

families  reigned  by  turns.     Epiphanes  invaded  Egypt,  and  ignomini- 

Jerusaiem    ously  withdrew  on  the  remonstrance  of  a  Roman  ambassa- 

taken.       dor.     He  took  Jerusalem ;  and,  by  his  excessive  cruelties, 

B.C.  no.    drove  the  Jews  to  assert  their  rights,  and  ultimately,  under 

the  Maccabees,  to  free  their  country  from  the  Syrians. 

The  remaining  history  of  Syria  is  a  succession  of  murders  and  usur- 

Tigranes.    pations,  until  the  people,  disgusted  by  the  manners  and  dis- 

A-M;392i.    sensions  of  their  monarchs,  placed  themselves   under  the 

Pompey.'     sway  of  Tigranes,  king  of  Armenia ;  and  in  the  succeeding 

AB*C.  Isf'  reign  Syria  was  reduced  by  Pompey  to  a  Roman  province. 


History  of  Egypt,  from  its  conquest  by  Cambyses,  to 
its  final  subjugation  by  Augustus. 


r  Egypt  was  conquered  by  Alexander  in  3673.  Upon  the 
Egypt.  division  of  the  empire,  after  the  death  of  Alexander,  began 
B  c/33i?'  tne  splendid  age  of  the  Ptolemies. 

Egypt  was  filled  with  Greeks  and  Hebrews.  Alexandria 
became  the  seat  of  schools  and  learning:  the  museum  was  established, 
where  all  who  chose  to  devote  themselves  to  any  department  of  learn- 
ing could  have  apartments.,  and  live  on  royal  bounty. 

KINGS  OF  EGYPT. 

The  dynasty  of  the  Ptolemies  lasted  from  .the  battle  of  Ipsus,  3703, 
to  the  battle  of  Actium,  3973, 


78  HISTORY      OF      EGYPT. 

KINGS  OF  EGYPT. 

PTOLEMY  LAGUS.*  PTOLKMT  ALEXANDER. 

PTOLEMY  PHILADELPHIA.  CLEOPATRA. 

PTOLEMY  EVERGETIS  PTOLEMY  ALEXANDER  II. 

PTOLEMY  PHILOPATER.  PTOLEMY  ATTLETES. 

PTOLEMY  EPIPHANES.  BERENICE. 

PTOLEMY  PHILOMETER.  PTOLEMY  and  CLEOPATRA. 

PTOLEMY  PHYSCON.  CLEOPATRA  II.  conquered  3973. 
PTOLEMY  LUTHYRTTS. 

Lagus          Ptolemy  Soter,  or  Lagus.  was  an  excellent  prince.     He 

A.M.  367i.  esteemed  the  welfare  of  his  subjects  the  first  object  of  govern- 

B.c.333.     mentt     ^.  ]over  himself  of  the  arts  and  sciences,  they  rose, 

under  his  patronage,  to  a  splendour  which  rivalled  their  state  in  the  best 

days  of  Greece.     He  was  the  founder  of  the  famous  Alexandrian 

Library. 

Philadelphia.      Ptolemy  Philadephus  inherited  the  talents  of  his  father, 

A.M.  3741.  though  he  had  considerable  blemishes  of  character.     It  was 

by  the  order  of  this  prince  that  seventy-two  interpreters  made 

the  celebrated  translation  of  the  Hebrew  Scriptures  into  Greek ;  called, 

from  their  number,  the  Septuagint. 

EvergRtis.       Ptolemy  Evergetis  trod  in  the  footsteps  of  his  predecessors, 
A.M.  3758.  and  derived  his  honourable  surname  of  Beneficent  from  his 
successful  promotion  of  the  prosperity  of  his  people.     In  the 
beginning  of  his  reign,  having  waged  a  successful  war  with  Antiochus 
of  Syria,  for  the  recovery  of  some  provinces  of  his  hereditary  domini- 
ons, and  returning  with  immense  spoils  through  Judea,  he  offered  sa- 
crifice, as  Josephus  tells  us,  to  the  God  cf  Israel,  in  thanksgiving  for 
his  victories. 

When  we  pass  Evergetis  the  Ptolemies  degenerate. 
Philopater  was  a  cruel  prince,  and   his  reign  was  disgraced  by  a 
long  and  sanguinary  persecution  of  the  Jews. 

Epiphanes.       Epiphanes  was  the  first  Egyptian  tributary  to  the  Romans. 
A.M.  3796.  He  was  compelled  to  seek  their  protection  by  the  threats  of 
Philip  and  Antiochus  the  Great.     A  king  may  be  at  the 
same  time  a  master  and  a  slave.     From  the  reign  of  Epiphanes  Egypt 
was   completely  subordinate   to   the   Romans,  the    Egyptian   Greek 
princes  being  permitted  to  reign,  on  condition  that  they  gave  no  um- 
brage to  Rome. 

Auietes        The  h'story  of  Auletes,  the  Piper,  is  a  more  striking  illus- 
A.M  3935.  tration  of  the  degraded  state  of  the  country  than  any  other; 
he  was  a  sort  of  puppet  danced  about  by  the  Romans;  they 
put  him  on  and  off  the  throne  at  their  pleasure. 

Egypt  would  not  have  so  long  delayed  its  entire  subjection  to  Rome, 
if  it  had  not  been  for  the  internal  relations  of  that  empire,  and  still  more 

209  Years.        *  From  Ptolemy  Lagus  3,700,  to  Ptolemy  Luthyrus,    3,900,   are 

B  c  304      20°  years-     The  initials  will  help  us  to  remember  the  names.    From  1st 

Ptolemy  L.  to  2d  Ptolemy  L.  there  are  6  Piol<mies;  viz.  Philadelphus 

and  Evergetes,  Philopater  and  Epiphanes,  Philometer  and  Physcon,  then  Lathyrus. 

After  that  there  are  3  A's  ;  viz.  Alexander,  Alexander,  Auletes ;  and,  finally,  there 

is  the  last  Greek  sovereign  of  Egypt,  Cleopatra, 


HISTORY     OF     SPAIN.  79 

the  charms  of  Cleopatra.     She,  by  her  connexion  with  Csesar  and  An- 
tony, retained  her  kingdom  and  even  enlarged  it. 

The  history  of  Egypt  now  became  intimately  connected  with  that 
cieopatra.  °f  R°me-     As  l°ng  as  Caesar  lived  Cleopatra  had  his  pro- 
A  M.  3952.  tection.     After  Caesar's  death  she  embraced  the  party  of  the 
B'°'52    triumvirs;  and   prevailed  on  them,  on  the  death  of  her  bro- 
ther, to  acknowledge  as  king  her  son  Ptolemoeus  Caesario.     But  the 
deep  passion  which  Antony  conceived  for  her  chained  her  to  his  fate. 
Battle  of       After  the    unsuccessful  battle  of  Aclium,  3973,  Antony 
Actium.    and   Cleopatra  were  pursued  by  Augustus  to  Egypt;  and 
B.C.  31!    during  the  reign  of  Alexander  they  both  killed  themselves, 
the  one  with  the  sword,  the  other  by  the  sting  of  an  asp. 


Jlncient  Spain,  exhibiting  its  various  Names  and 
Divisions,  uith  an  account  of  its  Inhabitants,  Colo- 
nies, Subjugation,  Syc. 

COUNTRY  t 

s  ah)A(lngiish        SPAIN  is  the  English  translation  of  the  Latin  Hispania ; 
Not  including    but   Hispania  included  the  ancient  Lusitania,  answering 
LusP""tlugai now  nearly  to  the  modern  Portugal. 

maiTTD^notinea  HsspERiA  was  also  applied  to  the  same  country,  a 
country  west  of  name  expressive  of  its  western  position  in  relation  to 

Rome.  -r, 

Rome. 

Hispania  (Latin.)      HISPANIA  is  the  Roman  or  Latin  name,  which  they 
(including  Lusi-  borrowed  from  the  Carthaginians,  from  whom  they  took 
this  country  about  3800,  A.M. 

IBERIA  was  the  Greek  name,  derived  from  the  river 

Firtt'a1  ^MeiToni    Iberus  (Ebro.)     The  Greeks  at  first  applied  this  name 

to  the   Mediter-  only  to  the  country  along  the  Mediterranean  coast  from 

ranean coast.     Qades  (Cadiz)  to  the  Rhone  in  Gaul;   while  they  termed 

the  Atlantic  coast  Tartesses,  and  the  interior  with  Gaul, 

under  the  general  name  Celtica.     But  their  intercourse 

with  the  Romans  after  Spain  became  a  Roman  province, 

(A.M,  3800,)  taught  them  to  apply  their  name  to  the  whole 

country. 

s  anhwfs^cEng-      Spain  was  inhabited  by  several  distinct  people,  gene- 
lish.)          rally  mixed  races,  whose  origin  was  very  obscure.     The 
A1Sge"erai  name  Latin   Hispani  (masculine   plural   of  Hispanus)  was  a 
for  the^ccuiben,  general  term  for  all  these  people. 

briTAstures  and  CELTiBERi,  (Celts  and  Iberians  mixed  together.)  This 
natfons^nh^bit-  people  occupied  an  indefinite  extent  along  the  Mediterra- 
ing  Spain,  nean,  and  an  ample  space  in  the  interior,  particularly  con- 
The6riGreeiw  'at  tiguous  to  the  river  Iberus  (Ebro.)  They  consisted  of  a 
first  applied  th»  mixture  of  Native  Iberi,  and  Celts  or  Gauls.  They  made 

name  only  to  the  .  . 

people  along  the  a  long  resistance  both  to  Carthage  and  Rome.     (See  Nu- 

Mediterranean     ^^  SertoriuS)  &c.,  below.) 


80  HISTORYOFSPAIN. 

^ntabri.  CiNTABRi  (in  the  northwest.)     These  were  a  warlike 

Catiaici.'  and  ferocious  people,  occupying  the  northwest  of  Spain 
on  the  Bay  of  Biscay,  (Sinus  Cant£bricus.)  They  made 
a  long  and  obstinate  resistance  to  Rome,  and  were  not 
finally  subdued  till  the  time  of  Augustus.  The  ASTURES 
and  CALLAICI  were  contiguous  to  the  Cantabri  on  the 
west.  They  long  resisted  Rome. 

LUSITANI  (Portuguese.)     These  inhabited  nearly  the 

limits  of  modern   Portugal.     They  long   withstood  the 

Roman  armies,  and  their  frequent  rebellions  occupied  the 

armies  of  Dolabella,  Scipio,  Julius  Caesar,  &c«     (See  Nu- 

DIVISIONS.    mantia,  Sertorius,  &c.,  below.) 

Tarraconensis,  or 

Murdafy'aiencia,  TAKRAcoNENSis,  or  CiTERiOR,  (Hither  Spain.)  This 
Catalonia,  Arra-  Was  one  of  the  two  grand  divisions  of  Spain,  including  the 

gon,       Navarre.    ,  lL  ?    •          •  /!»«••       IT   i 

Castile.        the  north,  east,  and  interior ;    (modern  Murcia,   Valen- 

Biscay,  Leon.      „,•„     &„  \ 
Austuriaa.  C13'  &C-> 

Gallic!*. 

ULTERIOR  (Farther  Spain.)  This  was  the  second  grand 
ULTERIOR,    division,  including  the  south  and  west,  viz.  Baetica  and 

Lusitania. 

(G*enada3°Awia-      BvETicA,  the  most  fertile  part  of  Spain,  on  the  river 
lusia)         Baetis,  (Guadelquiver,)  from  which  it  derives  its  name. 
Lusitania          LUSITANIA,  finally  was  made  a  separate  province,  when 
fit}  °'  "  Bsetica  received  the  same  distinction. 

The  application  of  this  name  (Tartessus)  is  very  diffi- 
Tanessus.      cult:  it  is  generally  supposed  to  apply  to  a  city  or  district 
about  the  mouth  of  the  Baetis  (Guadelquiver.) 

Some  suppose  that  Tarshish,  in  the  Scriptures,  some- 

jlarsnisn.— balea-    .  ,rr,  ,  .__  .',  .    , 

ric  isles.— ivica,  times  denotes  the  same  place  (Tartessus;)  but  certainly 

Majorca,  Minorca  nQt  always 
COLONIES   & 

Gad^aU(Cadiz')  Spain  was  early  visited  for  purposes  of  commerce,  by 
(Pnenician.)  Sa-  Tyrians,  (Phenicians,)  Carthaginians,  Grecians,  &c.,  who 
cian^New^ca^  established  colonies,  and  planted  cities  on  its  coasts  and 
thage,  (Cathagin- islands,  (Gades,  &c.) 

Mb.) 

conquests  of        Before  A.M.  3500,  the  enterprising  Carthaginians  had 

Carthage   in          iij  -jii  ^.1°  r  n      •      • 

Spain.        subdued  a  considerable  extent  of  the  sea  coast  of  Spam  in 
the  southeast,  as  well  as  the  Balearic  islands.     After  the 
&  f nd  of  the  first  Punic  war'  (3740—3764,)  the  Carthagin- 
thesea.       ians,  having  lost  the  command  of  the  sea  and  their  rich 
possessions  in  Sicily,  pushed  their  conquests  in  Spain, 
Rom  ns  interfere  (under  H^miclar,  A'sdrubal,  and  Hannibal,)  to  the  river 
in°thenaffairseof  Iberus  (Ebro.)      The  jealous  Romans  now  interposed, 
Spam.        jQQk  tjjg  Greet  cjty  Of  Saguntum,  and  the  whole  coast 
Hannibal    takes tnence  to  Gaul,  under  their  protection,  and  made  Carthage 
Saguntum,    and  stipulate  to  carry  their  arms  no  farther  north.     The  tak- 
narchw  into    ^  Qf  ga^untum  ^y  Hannibal,  and  his  celebrated  march 
through  Gaul  into  Italy,  was  the  cause  and  commence- 
Second  Punic.    ment  of  the  second  Punic  war,  which  resulted  in  trans- 
ferring Spain  from  Carthage  to  Rome,  and  reduced  Car- 


HISTORY     OP     SPAIN.  81 

lpa?nMand  hqu"n-  [^aSe  ^rom  tne  condition  of  a  great  empire  to  that  of  an 
bie  Carthage,  af-  humble  city,  at  the  mercy  of  the  conqueror. 

ter  Hannibal  had 
harassed  them  in 
Italy  15  years. 

Romans  send  ar-  Notwithstanding  the  victories  of  Trebia,  Thrasymene, 
SSs^sSi?*  Cannfe,  &c.,  and  the  victorious  career  of  Hannibal  in  Italy 
,-oung  Scipio 'a-  for  fifteen  years,  the  Romans  found  armies  to  send  into 
ther'rdeath,  con-  Spain,  which,  after  some  disasters,  the  young  Scipio  sub- 
qa^es1mon'Aafrid  ^ue^i  signally  avenging  the  slaughter  of  his  father,  un-* 
ca.  where  he  ac- cle,  and  two  Roman  armies.  With  great  difficulty,  he 
of  Africanu^ihe  tnen  obtained  leave  of  the  Roman  senate  to  pass  over  to 
eider.)  By  con-  Africa  ;  and  there  Hannibal,  who  was  recalled  from  Italy 
Kom^tiUome'san  to  defend  Carthage,  was  defeated  in  the  fatal  field  of  Zama, 
after"6'  B^SS  A>M>  3803'  This  (as  observed  above)  at  once  raised 
powerful  in  Rome  to  the  rank  of  an  empire,  while  Carthage  only  ex- 
^A«ht  &  isted  to  tremble  and  obey  55  years  longer,  and  was  then 
Carthage •.  kum-  destroyed,  A.M.  3858,  in  the  third  Punic  war,  by  Scipio 

bled  3803 — de-          p  .      J  ,  J 

stroyed  3f58.    Aincanus  the  younger. 

Third  Punic.  . 

Romans  have  to      After  Spain  was  transferred  to  Rome,  it  cost  the  Ro- 
tionf  ealndnoften'  mans  many  hard  efforts  to  subdue  the  interior  and  distant 
reconquer  Spain  nations  (Celtiberi,  &c.)  who  long  resisted,  and  often  re- 
after  they  get  it  in    j  ' 
from  Carthage,      belled. 

Numamia.  -  Re-  3864.  Numantia,  a  city  in  the  interior,  assisted  by  the 
tboe"3878fronviria4  Celtiberi  and  Lusitani,  baffled  the  Roman  arms  fourteen 
thus  was  at  first  years.  The  celebrated  Viriathus  was  leader  of  the  Span- 
th^gem  ad  ish  confederacyt  til|  he  was  treacherously  killed, 

orius.  -  Gen-      Eight  years,  from  3923  to  3931,  Spain  rebelled  again, 
mn3aa  ar>d  resisted  Rome  under  Sertorius,  a  Roman  general  of 
to  3931.  AII  the  the  Marian   faction,    who  fled  from   the  dictator   Sylla, 

Roman      armies  .JT,  .  J/.J-L  k     ^-11 

def.ai.dtii  Pom-  Many  Roman  armies  were  defeated  in  the  contest,  till 
pey  arrived.  p0mpey  finished  the  war,  3931. 

Spain,  after  Au-  Spain  (rich  in  mines  and  tributes)  continued,  from  the 
gustus,  anobedi-  time  of  Augustus,  generally  an  obedient  provincetill  about 
(rich'Kin^'of  A.D.  500,  that  is,  about  700  years  from  the  time  it  was 
gold,  silver,  fcc.)  taken  from  Carthage,  (B.C.  204.) 


JIncient  Gaul,  exhibiting  its  various  Names  and  Divi- 
sions, with  an  account  of  its  Inhabitants,  Colonies, 
Subjugation,  fyc. 

(Franks,Fmich.)      Modern  FRANCE,  stands  nearly  for  ancient  Gaul. 

Ga'ul. 

(English  from  the      GAUL,  including  France,  Belgia,  Helvetia,  &C. 

Latin  Gallia.) 

Gaiiia.  GALLIA  is  the  Roman  name  of  Gaul,  from  Gael  of  the 

(Gaiu  or  Gauls.)  natives. 

ir  M«A       GAEL  was  the  native  name  of  the  Celts  or  Aborigines 
of  Gaul. 

11 


82  HISTORYOF      GAUL. 

Ceitica  These  terms  strictly  apply  to  the  Celts,  or  the  country 

^"ciiiat^118 }    tney  occupied-      The  Greeks  sometimes  applied  them  to 

(Galatians.)        all  Gaul. 

(Tranfaipina.)  In  the  common  acceptation  of  the  term  GALLIA,  its 
Gaul  beyond  the  application  is  the  same  without  the  epithet  Transalpine, 

/I J|)H    IO    luc     A<)-  *       ,    .       ,  .^  •    I          I  -i  •       •  I  •  1 

mans,  uit.-rior or  as  with  it.  But  with  the  epithet  it  implies  another  or  se- 
Ortefoai a^d'pltv  cond  Gaul,  and  means  distinctly  original  Gaul,  Gaul 
per  itrmbracrd  Proper,  in  opposition  to  Cisalpine,  or  Italian  Gaul. 

modern     France,    „.    ,f.  j      i  i     i  /• 

Belgium,  the  Gallia  embraced  the  whole  extent  of  country  between 
Poy'andT/eivf the  AlPs-  Rhi.ne'  (in  its  entire  course,)  North  Sea,  Chan- 
tia,  and  Germany  nel,  Bay  of  Biscay,  Pyrenees,  and  Mediterranean. 

westoftheKhine. 

Gauith  settle-       Besides  the  proper  and  original  Gaul,  Gallias  or  Gauls 

ent&c. taJy'    were  multiplied  by  provincial  divisions,  and  by  new  set- 

Gaiiu    (Cisaipi-  tlemen's  beyond  the  original  limits;  the  two  Gauls  or  the 

na )     Gaul    this  ,,          .-       ,    J.     .  .' 

side  the  Alps,  ci-  lour  Gauls  being  common  expressions. 
Ganir  'SJSK;      About  3400  A.M.,  (B.C.  (MX),)  in.  the  time  of  the  elder 
Italian  Gaui.from  Tarquin,  a  whole  nation  of  Gauls  or  Celts  passed  from 
Rubicon!  i'nciud"  original  Gaul  into  Italy,  and  encroaching  upon  the  Tus- 
jug  Liguria,     cans,  who  were  then  spread  far  north,  settled  in  the  country 

which    wa*    not  .  f  .  ,        J 

occupied  by  between  the  Alps  and  the  river  Rubicon;  and  thus  form- 
ed a  second  or  Italian  Gaul,  distinguished  from  the  origin- 
al Gaul  by  the  epithet  Cisalpine,  which  means  this  side  of  the  Alps  in 
relation  to  the  Romans. 

senna  Gaiiia.  Two  hundred  years  later,  3600,  (B.C.  400,)  another 
A  second  imiian  Gaulish  swarm  poured  into  Italy,  and  passing  through 

Gaul,   settled  by  ~,.      ,    .        „       ,   v  ,     ,  .       TT     u    •  .u     t 

Gain  senones  Cisalpine  daiil,  settled  along  the  Umbnan  coast  south  of 
SS  \ hwi?oebnurn-  of  the  Rub'con,  to  a  place  called  from  them  Sena  Gallia, 
ed  Rome,  under  (now  Senigaglia,)  by  which  name  we  may  designate  also 
B.cnmis.  the  wfroie  settiement  jt  was  this  savage  horde  that  in- 
vaded Tuscany  and  burned  Rome,  3614,  and  never  ceased  to  invade  or 
rebel  till  nearly  exterminated,  3721. 

!  .  .  About  3725,  another  prodigious  swarm  of  Gauls,  un- 
Gaui,  oTGauthj  f'er  a  second  Brennus,  invaded  Macedon  and  Greece, 
uHlakM-inor  Ga"  which,  as  well  as  Asia  Minor,  they  long  scourged  with 

Jatiancuiganame  .,         ..  ,J  .-r.! 

applied   by    the  war  and  desolation,  aggravating  the  calamities  of  Alex- 
Greeks  to  ancient  ancjer>s  successorSi  tj]i  they  finally  settled  in  the  central 
part  of  Asia  Minor,  and  formed  a  fourth  Gaul,  under  the 
Greek  name  Galatia. 

Provincial  Gauis.  This  division  of  TRANSALPINE  GAUL  is  also  called 
ci*  or'  Prov?ncia  Provincia  Romana,  (the  Roman  Province,)  it  being  the 
Romana,)  first  first  Roman  province  in  Gaul,  and  held  a  considerable 

Human  province    .irTi-/-<  ji  TII 

in  Gaui  in  the  time  before  Juhus  Caesar  conquered  the  rest.    It  lay  along 
wHithAip";thceai^d  tne  A1PS  an(^  Mediterranean,  comprising  modern  Pro- 
aiso  Narbonen«ig.  vence,  Dauphini,  Savoy,  and  Languedoc. 
Gaiiia  (Aquitani-      Ao_uiTANiA  embraced  at  first  only  the  country  actually 
tnVroutlwI^'of  i1103^!^^  by  Aquitani  between  the  Garonne  and  the  Pyre- 
Gaul  nees;  but  Augustus  enlarged  it  to  the  Loire. 
Gaiiia     (Ceitica      GALLIA  CfiLTicA  OR  PROPER  at  first  embraced  a  great 
Proper.)  The  N     art    Qf  ^g   country  inhabited    by  the  Celts,  from  the 

W.,  central,  and  £,  in>»»  »T*          T»«. 

S.E.  of  Gaui,  in-  Garonne,  to  the  Seme,  Maine,  Upper  Rhine,  Alps,  &c. 


HISTORYOFGAUL.  83 

habited  by  Celts  Its  extremes  were  Brittany  and  Helvetia.  But  Augus- 
caiied  aifwgjLug- tus  great'y  reduced  its  extent  by  additions  to  Aquitania 

dunensis.  and  Belgica. 

Gaiiia  (Belgica.)  GALLIA  BELGICA,  as  a  province,  contained  more  than 
BeiiKic  Gaui:  in-  Beigia  Proper,  that  is,  more  than  was  actually  occupied 

eluding  morethan  1^1  r    T-»    i     •  TI-         <~*  «      '    •         VL- 

Beigia,  and  en-  by  Belgae  or  Belgians.  Julius  Caesar  confines  it  within 
tusgonthye'»outn^  l^e  Seine,  Marne,  Vosges,  (mountains,)  Rhine,  and  Sea. 
but  Germania  »fr  Augustus  took  from  Celtica,  Helvetia  and  the  country 
paratcd  be  of  lhe  j^-qua^  (now  Franche-Compte.)  and  added  them 

to  Beli>ica. 

Gaiiia  (Germam-  The  eastern  part  of  BELGICA  along  the  Rhine  and  Meuse 
ca.)  Germania  being  settled  by  Germans,  was  separated  by  Augustus 

Cisrhena,       Ger-          ,  3      ,  J      c  '.  _  *  J        .  & 

many  on  this  side  under  the  name  of  Germania,  (Germany;)  which  was 
isiio^Bdgic^Ger-  distinguished  from  the  proper  Germany  east  of  the  Rhine 
many  west  of  the  by  the  epithet  Cisrhena,  (this  side  of  the  Rhine — the  west 
side.)  This  Germany  west  of  the  Rhine  might  be  term- 
ed Gaiiia  Germanica.  or  Beigia  Germanica.  It  was  distinguished  by 
Augustus  into  Germania  Prima  (first)  and  Secunda  (second.) 

GAUL,  GALLIA,  FRANCE,  &c.  In  a  loose  and  familiar  sense,  these 
several  names  are  concurrent  in  their  application;  but  their  strict  and 
critical  application  is  not  only  very  different,  but  often  difficult  to  ascer- 
tain ;  being  all  of  them  loosely  and  variously  applied  by  different  au- 
thors, and  even  by  the  same  author  in  different  places. 

There  is  an  original  sense  of  the  word  Gaiiia  asderiv- 

Apphcation    of       j   /•  /-«       i         L  •    L  ij  ••  !••  u 

the  term  Gaiiia.  ed  from  Gael,  which  would  restrain  its  application  to  the 
proper  country  of  Gaels  or  Celts,  the  aborigines  of  Gaul. 
But  a  principle  of  convenience  extended  its  application  to  Aquitania 
and  Beigia,  which  were  not  inhabited  by  Galli  proper,  or  Celts,  strictly 
so  called.  The  final  and  settled  application  of  this  word  was,  to  cer- 
tain well  defined  natural  limits,  including  Celts,  Belgians,  and  Aqui- 
tanians. 

The  word  Celtae,  Celts,  &c.,  has  a  much  stricter  applica- 

thePtelrCm'i(c«itL  l'on  to  tne  racc  tnfin  l^e  WOT^  Galli  has;  by  Cc-lts  we  mean 

Ceitt.       '  the  aborigines  of  Gaul,  Spain,   Britain,  &c.,  a  people  said 

to  have  been  entirely  distinct  and  peculiar  in  their  origin, 

language,  and  customs.     All  Gauls  then  were  not  Celts;  nor  were  all 

Celts  Gauls.     The   Celts  of  Spain  and  Britain  were  not  Gauls,  nor 

were  the  Gauls  of  Beigia  and  Aquitania  Celts      We  apply  the  word 

Celts  to  a  primitive  aboriginal  race,  whose  Gaelic  descendants  have 

been  reduced  by  national  extermination  to  a  few  Welsh,  Irish,  and 

Highland  Scotch. 

The   divisions   of  Gauls  by  Julius  Caesar  into  Celts, 
Gaul"""       Aquitanians,  and  Belgians,  and  the  corresponding  divi- 
sion of  the  country  into  the  provinces  of  Celtic-a,  Aquitan- 
ica,  and  Belgica,  was  simple  and  convenient.     But  the  changes  made 
in  the  Hmits  of  these  divisions  by  Augustus,  as  well  as  other  consider- 
ations, have  perplexed  the  geography  of  Gaul,  by  giving  countenance 
and  currency  to  applications  of  the  same  terms,  seemingly  inconsistent 
and  contradictory. 

Th-ne  Mihdivi-        To  express  the  distinction  between  these  ancient  and 
eions  conftiavd    obscure  ract's  in  confident  and  unqualified  terms,  is  alms- 


84  HISTORY     OF     GAUL. 

ing  all  readers  and  learners.  That  there  were  three  distinct  races, 
viz.  Belgians,  Celts,  and  Aquitanians,  in  Gaul,  we  cannot  question.  But 
there  must  have  been  many  savage  tribes  not  precisely  assignable  to 
either  of  these  divisions.  If  many  tribes  could  be  designated  as  Celts 
or  Belgians,  there  must  have  been  also  many  that  could  not  be  clearly 
and  distinctly  either  Celts  or  Belgians.  This  sufficiently  accounts  for 
the  vague  and  unsatisfactory  explanations  we  get  from  our  books. 

The  detail  of  early  history  developes  the  causes  of  our 

Cause*  of  this  i       •.•  ,i_'~u'*rnL.        I  r          u  iJ- 

confmion.  perplexities  on  this  subject.  I  he  cians  of  each  great  di- 
vision were  distinguished  among  themselves  by  striking 
peculiarities;  and  roving  savages  were  continually  changing  their 
residence,  blending,  exterminating,  &c.  The  Celts  mixed  with  Bel- 
gians and  Aquitanians,  and  Gauls  mixed  with  Germans  and  Spaniards. 
The  unsettled  hordes  of  Gaul  and  Germany  were  always  in  commo- 
tion ;  rushing  in  resistless  bodies  from  one  country  into  the  other, 
blending,  exterminating,  &c.  Germans  were  found  in  Gaul,  and  Gauls 
were  found  in  Germany,  Italy,  Asia  Minor,  &c. 

Julius  Caesar  tells  us  that  the  Belgic  Gauls  were  for 
mwiTxtraction*  the  most  part  originally  Germans,  and  that  of  all  the 
Gaulic  nations  only  these  German  Gauls  could  resist  the 
fury  of  their  brethren,  the  Teutones  and  Cimbri.  The  Belgic  Gauls 
were  doubtless  successive  hordes  of  German  emigrants.  The  earliest 
emigrants  were  crowded  by  later  ones  towards  the  Seine  and  North. 
Sea;  and  in  the  time  of  Cassar,  the  nearer  you  approached  the  Rhine, 
the  more  obvious  was  the  German  extraction  of  the  people.  This  suf- 
ficiently explains  why  the  number,  extent,  and  distinctive  character  of 
the  Belgians  are  so  illy  defined.  Cassar  allows  but  a  few  real  Bel- 
gians, and  no  author  furnishes  a  distinct  characteristic  for  the  Belgic 
race.  It  may  be  observed,  that  from  the  time  of  Caesar  to  our  own 
time,  no  geographical  term  has  been  more  vague  and  fluctuating  than 
that  of  Belgium  or  Belgia. 

The  invasion  of  Gaul  and  Italy  by  the  savage  hosts  of 
2S£*Sib0<ta  Germany,  called  Teutones  and  Cimbri,  3895,  is  familiar 
fixed-  to  most  readers.  Though  they  were  nearly  destroyed  by 
Gauis,  Celts,  &c.  Marius,  3903,  yet  in  their  career  of  eight  years,  they  must 
have  caused  great  changes  in  the  population  of  the  coun- 
tries through  which  they  passed.  In  Caesar's  first  campaign  in  Gaul, 
he  had  to  encounter  the  whole  nation  of  Helvetia,  who  had  left  their 
inhospitable  country  to  seek  a  more  favourable  settlement  in  the  lands 
of  the  ^Edui,  between  the  Soane  and  the  Loire.  The  next  formidable 
foe  he  met,  was  the  Germans,  under  their  king,  Ariovistus,  who  had 
crossed  the  Rhine,  and  subdued  the  northeast  of  Gaul.  Other  emigra- 
tions more  ancient  and  obscure,  are  mentioned  by  historians;  but  pro- 
bably enough  has  been  said  to  satisfy  every  reader  that  no  precise 
boundaries  can  be  fixed  for  Gauls,  Celts,  Belgians,  or  Germans,  in 
these  early  ages.  • 

Tacitus  advances  the  opinion  that  the  Germans  were 

r^pecUng(thenori"  a°  indigenous  or  aboriginal  race.     He  might  better  have 

gin  of  the  Ger-  gai^  that  neither  he  nor  any  body  else  knew  much  about 

them,  only  that  they  had  no  fixed  residences,  and  were 


HISTORYOPOAUL.  85 

divided  into  innumerable  clans,  devoted  to  war,  rapine,  and  all  savage 
pursuits. 

His  account  of  the  origin  of  their  name  is  sufficiently 
name  German,  curious  and  characteristic  to  merit  attention.  He  says  it 
was  modern  or  of  recent  origin.  A  German  people,  call- 
ed Tungrians  in  his  time,  and  settled  along  the  Meuse  in  Belgic  Gaul, 
had  assumed,  when  they  crossed  the  Rhine,  the  frightful  name  of 
Gher-men,  (war-men,)  to  spread  a  panic  before  them;  which  frightful 
name  was  perpetuated  as  we  find  in  Caesar,  and  being  propagated  by 
Gauls  and  Romans,  it  recrossed  the  Rhine,  and  became  the  general 
name  for  the  people  on  the  east  of  that  river,  as  well  as  for  those  who 
had  settled  on  the  west  of  it. 

The  fate  and  fortunes  of  Gaul,  after  it  became  a  Roman  province, 
were  chiefly  influenced  by  the  great  exposure  to  barbarous  incursions 
on  the  German  frontier. 

The  long  struggle  of  the  Gauls  with  Rome  exhibited 
7toHan>lorUCtea0i-  the  unequal  conflict  of  brutal  ferocity  and  wild  enterprise 
pine  Gaul  by  the  against  disciplined  valour  and  deep-working  policy.  From 
the  burning  of  Rome  by  the  Galli  Senones,  3614,  the 
Italian  Gauls  continued  the  implacable  enemies  of  Rome  about  165 
years,  till  those  of  the  north  were  finally  subdued,  about  3780,  between 
the  first  and  second  Punic  wars. 

The  victories  of  Hannibal  in  the  north  of  Italy,  3786,  encouraged'the 
Gauls  to  assist  him  about  fifteen  years  in  Italy;  but  the  triumphs  of 
Scipio  Africanus  the  elder  in  Spain  and  Africa,  re-established  the  Ro- 
man dominion  both  over  Gauls  in  the  north,  and  Greeks  in  the  south 
of  Italy.  It  was  a  part  of  Roman  policy  to  secure  their  conquests 
by  fixing  garrisons  and  planting  colonies  among  the  conquered  people. 
The  Romans  early  maintained  a  friendly  intercourse 
Transalpine Gaui  with  the  Greeks  of  Marseilles,  whom  they  protected 
against  their  barbarous  neighbours.  They  finally  got 
a  firm  footing  in  their  new  province  of  Gaul,  (Provincia  Romana,)  by 
planting  colonies  and  establishing  garrisons  there,  particularly  after  the 
famous  defeat  of  the  Teutones  by  Marius  at  Aquae  Sextias,  near  Mar- 
seilles. 

Caesar  held  the  two  Gauls  about  ten  years,  from  3944  to  3954,  and 
employed  eight  bloody  campaigns  in  his  cruel  conquest.  The  inva- 
sion of  the  Helvetians  and  Germans,  and  the  intestine  division  among 
the  Gaulic  tribes,  soon  opened  a  fine  field  for  his  splendid  military  ta- 
lents. All  these  enemies  were  speedily  subdued  or  annihilated.  And 
when  his  boundless  rapacity  and  wanton  slaughter  of  enemies  and  in- 
surgents provoked  new  enemies  and  fearful  combinations  against  him, 
he  had  the  address  and  genius  to  baffle  and  confound  the  whole,  when 
any  other  man  would  have  been  overwhelmed. 


A  CHRONOLOGICAL  INDEX, 

Containing  the  most  important  Events,  from  Jl.  M. 
3750  to  4554. 


3250     Rome  built.    History  of  Assyria,  Babylon,  Media,  and  Lydia 
begin  to  be  known  about  the  same  period. 

3264     Ahaz,  king  of  Judah,  attacked  by  Pekah,  king  of  Israel,  and 

Ahaz.     Rezen,  king  of  Syria,  invites  Tiglath-Pileser  king  of  Assyria, 

1st  Captivity  and  gives  him  the  treasures  of  the  holy  temple,  for  his  .assis- 

tance against  his  invaders.     Tiglath-Pileser  carries  the  Sy- 

rians captive,  subdues  their  country,  and  also  carries  the  four 

northern  and  three  eastern  tribes  of  Israel  captive.     Com- 

mences the  first  captivity,  leaving  only  the  two  tribes  of 

Ephraim  and  Manasseh  half  tribe. 

3283     First  captivity  completed  by  Shalmanezer,  who  took  Sama- 
Compieted.  rja>  an(j  subjugated  the  country  now  called  Samaria. 

3379     Nabopolassar,  a  Babylonian,  revolts  from  Saracus,  the  last 
Babylonish  kinsr  of  Nineveh  or  Assyria.     Destroys  Nineveh,  and  makes 

Empire.     T»   i     i  <•    t      V»    i     i       •    i  • 

Jeremiah.  Babylon  the  seat  of  the  Babylonish  empire. 

3398 

adorBabyio-Nebuchadnezzar,  now  joint  king  with  his  father  Nabopo- 

nish  captivity  lassar,  invades  Judah—  takes  Daniel  the  prophet,  and  com- 
^o'yearsftui  mences  the  second  captivity,  or  that  of  Judah. 

3468. 

3400    Nebuchadnezzar  reigns  alone,  on  the  death  of  his  father. 
3406 

3d  taking  of 


i-  Ezekiel,  with  many  other  Jews,  taken  to  Babylon. 

Jeconiah. 
Zedekiah. 

3416     Jerusalem  taken,  the  city  and  temple  destroyed,  and  the  Jews 

c^LpK'^  (that  is,  the  people  of  Jerusalem)  carried  captive.     This  is 
theSdandiastthe  completion  of  the  second  captivity. 

taking.  * 

3426     About  the  middle  of  the  siege  of  Tyre,  by  Nebuchadnezzar, 
siege  of  Tyre.  wnjch  lasted  13  years.     New  city  on  an  island.     No  spoils 
found  in  the  old  city,  the  inhabitants  having  removed,  with 
their  effects,  to  their  new  city. 

3436  About  this  time  Nebuchadnezzar  returns  from  his  invasion 
of  Egypt,  laden  with  spoils  ;  but  Egypt  was  only  spoiled,  not 
subjected  to  Babylon. 


INDEX.  87 

3446  Cyrus  of  Media  or  Persia,  in  conjunction  with  his  uncle 
Cyaxares,  (or,  as  some  say,  alone,  having  dethroned  his 
grandfather  Astyagas,)  commences  his  career  of  conquest, 
attacking  the  dominions  of  the  king  of  Babylon,  reducing 
Armenia,  and  then  marching  into  Asia  Minor. 

3456  Cyrus  conquers  Croesus,  king  of  Lydia,  whose  dominions 
comprehended  nearly  the  whole  of  Asia  Minor.  The  Mo- 
lian,  Ionian,  and  Dorian  Greeks,  having  been  subjected  by 
Croesus  and  his  predecessors,  now  reluctantly  yield  to  Cyrus, 
and  become  subject  to  the  king  of  Persia. 

3466 
Babylonish  Babylon  taken  and  the  Persian  empire  founded,  just  200 

emp'reends.  •>    .     ,         T>IM-  j   /-,  J 

Persian  emp.  years  before  Philip  conquered  Greece. 

begin*.    Susa 
the  capital. 

3468  Jews  restored  to  their  country  by  Cyrus,  but  still  held  in  po- 
litical subjection  to  the  kings  of  Persia.  2d  Temple  begun 
at  Jerusalem,  just  200  years  before  Philip  died  and  Alexander 
began  his  reign. 

3478  Cyrus  dies  and  Cambyses  begins,  (actually  3475,)  and  in 
to the'pe're'ian  34'®  Cambyses  invades  Egypt,  and  adds  it  to  the  Persian 
empire.  empire. 

3488  Darius  Hystaspes,  who  began  to  reign  in  3483,  reduces  Ba- 
bylon, wjiich  had  revolted  from  him,  after  a  siege  of  twenty 
months. 

3492 

Thrace  added  Darius,  after  an  invasion  of  the  Scythians,  on  the  coast  of 
tothePersian  the  Black  Sea,  (unfortunate)  conquers  Thrace  on  his  return. 

3498 

India  added  Darius  invades  and  conquers  India;  wjjich,  in  tribute,  was 

to  the  Persian  the  richest  province  of  the  Persian  empire. 

empire. 

3500     Persian  invasion,  25  years,  until  3025. 

3505  lonians  subdued.  The  Greeks  had  struggled  five  years  in 
Asia  Minor,  Thrace,  and  the  islands  of  the^Egean  Sea.  The 
king  of  Persia  then  prepared  to  carry  the  war  into  Greece ; 
but  his  preparations  were  slow  and  tedious. 

3510  Mardonius  despatched  for  Greece  with  an  army ;  has  his 
arrny  cut  off  in  Thrace,  and  loses  his  fleet  on  the  coast. 

3515     Battle  of  Marathon;    Miltiades,  father  of  Cimon,  chief; 

A^fara  h°n   Aristides  and  Themistocles  also  present.     Datis  and  Arta- 

"pionofaii   phernes,  generals  of  Darius.   10,000  Athenians  defeat  II  0,000 

aiiPpersia.ainst  Persians.     Here  the  Greeks  learned  to  conquer  vastly  supe- 

Poet^scbyius.rior  armies,  in  point  of  number,  and  to  despise  the  motley, 

ill-assorted  troops  of  Asia.     1000  Plataeans  fought  with  the 

Athenians,  but  the  Spartans  had  no  share  in  the  battle  of 

Marathon. 


88  INDEX. 

3520  Darius  Hystaspes  dies.  Herodotus,  the  first  profane  histo- 
rian, born.  Xerxes  subdues  a  revolt  in  Egypt;  and  by  that 
is  delayed  in  making  a  second  expedition  into  Greece. — 
Though  Herodotus  was  not  born  till  3520,  yet  his  history  is 
considered  authentic,  though  extravagant,  from  3500 ;  as  he 
could  ascertain  the  particulars  of  the  Grecian  and  Persian 
wars,  from  3500,  from  living  witnesses  older  than  himself. 
But  his  history  of  the  Greeks  and  other  nations,  prior  to  the 
Persian  wars,  is  full  of  conceits,  fictions,  and  marvels,  though 
generally  founded  on  fact.  It  is  remarkable  that  Homer,  the 
first  poet,  Pythagorus  and  Thales,  the  first  philosophers, 
and  Herodotus,  the  first  profane  historian,  should  be  among 
the  most  illustrious  in  their  respective  departments ;  yet  their 
views  were  fanciful  and  often  fantastic. 

3525  The  great  battles  of  Thermopylae,  (Leonidas) — Artemesium, 
TAer™ml^ae  Satamis'  (Themistocles) — Platea,  no  transcendant  genius — 
Saiamis  pia-  Mycaie,  Xantippus,  (father  of  Pericles) — Cimon,  a  valiant 
tn.  Mycaie.  y(mth  ftt  saiamis_  Greeks  victorious. 

3525     The  Persians  cease  to  invade  Greece.     Poetry  and  philoso- 

narion  "  until  P^y  ^rst  dawned  among  the  Greeks  of  Asia  Minor;  but  after 

3555.  '        these  great  battles  and  events  Athens  attracted   the  muses, 

philosophy,  and  liberal  arts.    While  Xerxes  invaded  Greece, 

the  Carthaginians,  who  possessed  part  of  Sicily,  being  leagued 

with  Xerxes,  tried  to  conquer  Syracuse  and'  other  Greek 

cities  of  Sicily.     la  this  war  Gelon  overthrew  300,000  of 

them  by  surprise.     From  this  time  until  the  first  Punic  war, 

3740,   the    Carthaginians  tried  to  conquer  the  Greeks  of 

Sicily. 

Athens,  which  the  Persians  had  burnt,  was  rebuilt  and 
strengthened  with  walls.  The  Spartans  remonstrate,  bat 
Themistocles  outwitted  them  ;  and  the  stone  walls,  the  ports 
and  fleets  of  Athens  confirmed  its  power  and  pre-eminence. 

3530    In  the  battles  of  3525,  the  Athenians  had,  from  policy,  allow- 
Cimon'B  ca-  e(j  t0  tne  Spartans  the  nominal  command,  though  the  Athe- 

reer  of  30        .  111  t  •   •       ci    i       •        ni  i 

years.  man  commander  had,  at  Artemisia,  kalamis,  s'lateea,  and 
Mycaie,  the  deserved  credit  of  the  brilliant  success.  After 
this  period,  3530,  the  haughtiness  of  the  Spartan  command- 
ers became  offensive  to  the  allies,  and  the  command  passed 
to  Cimon  the  Athenian  ;  who,  by  his  genius  and  disposition, 
attached  all  the  allies  to  him,  and  brought  them  into  alliance 
with  Athens.  This  great  champion  delivered  from  the  yoke 
of  Persia  the  Greeks  of  Thrace  and  Asia  Minor,  and  of  the 
islands,  and  Athens  rose  to  empire.  Having  at  her  disposal 
the  resources  of  Greece,  and  provoking,  by  her  ascendancy, 
the  jealousy  of  Sparta,  Cimon  enriched  himself  and  his  dear 
Athens  with  the  spoils  of  Persia,  Pericles  cherished  the 
democracy  and  Cimon  the  aristocracy  of  Athens.  Pericles 
always  tried  to  involve  Athens  and  Sparta — Cimon  always 
tried  to  allay  the  jealousy  between  the  two  states. 


INDEX.  89 

3535     Pericles  supreme  at  Athens  for  40  years.     Aristides  dies. 
Preer'of  w*"  Themistocles  banished,  (3533.)  Double  victory  ofCimon  over 
years.        the  Persian  fleet  and  army  at  the  Eurymedon,  in  Pamphylia; 
that  is  victory  by  sea  and  land  the  same  day.     During  these 
40  years  Pericles  and  Cimon  were  the  master  spirits  ;  Phi- 
dias the  genius.     Walls  and  temples  rose,  to  fortify  and 
adorn  Athens.  The  trophies  of  Cimon,  and  the  Persian  spoils, 
contribute  to  distinguish,  enrich,  and  embellish  Athens.    Peri- 
cles was  more  conspicuous  at  home  ;  Cimon  abroad.     Cimon 
the  aristocrat  distinguished  from  Pericles  the  democrat. 

3539  Earthquake  at  Sparta.  Helots  and  Messenians  revolt.  Mes- 
senian  war.  Messenians  subdued  after  ten  years.  Constant 
jealousies  between  Athens  and  Sparta  from  this  time. 

3544  Transient  revolt  of  Egypt  under  Inarus,  assisted  by  Athens. 
The  Persian  yoke  was  always  heavy  upon  the  Egyptians. 
The  Egyptians  frequently  revolted,  and  were  always  reduced 
with  great  difficulty. 

3548     Egyptians  reduced  to  obedience. 

3550  Cimon  banished,  by  the  influence  of  his  rival  Pericles,  and 
afterwards  recalled  by  the  same  influence ;  he  was  accused 
of  being  too  favourable  to  Sparta. 

3555  Cimon's  last  victory  over  the  Persians.  He  dies.  The 
Grecians  and  Persians  make  peace. 

8558     Truce  between  Sparta  and  Athens  for  30  years ;  soon  broken. 

3559  Herodotus  reads  his  history  at  his  adopted  city,  Athens.  He 
was  a  native  of  Hallicarnassus  in  Caria.  He  afterwards 
read  it  at  Olympia. 

3565  A  war  between  Corinth  and  her  colony,  Corcyra.  The  as- 
sistance yielded  by  Athens  to  Corcyra  in  this  war  is  the  more 
immediate  cause  of  the  Peloponnesian  war.  Thucydides, 
second  historian. 

3570    Socrates  flourishes. 

3573  Peloponnesian  war.  Athens  and  Sparta  leading  parties,  but 
nearly  all  Greece  engaged.  Darius  Nothus  assists  the 
Spartans  in  the  last  year  of  the  war. 

3575    Pericles  dies  the  second  year  of  the  Peloponnesian  war. 

3583  Peace  between  Athens  and  Sparta  stipulated  for  50  years; 
but  so  poorly  observed,  that  the  Peloponnesian  war  is  consi- 
dered as  continuing  until  3600. 

3588     Disastrous  expedition  of  Athens  to  attack  Syracuse,  which 
was  assisted  by  its  Doric  mother  Corinth,  and  afterwards  by 
Sparta.     In  this  war  Alcibiades  was  the  instigator;    Nicias 
12 


)  INDEX. 

and  the  intrepid  Demosthenes  the  victims.  Tremendous 
vicissitudes  during  the  whole  expedition,  and  dreadful  ca- 
tastrophe. 

3590  Egypt  revolts  from  Persia.  The  ^Egean  Sea  becomes  the 
scene  of  contest  between  Athens  and  Sparta.  The  generals 
of  Darius  Nothus  assist  Sparta. 

3595     Alcibiades  recalled. 

3599  Battle  of  ^Egos-Potamos. 

3600  Peloponnesian  war  ends  by  the  taking  of  Athens  by  the  Spar- 
tans.    Darius  Nothus  dies.     Plato,  Xenophon,  flourish. 

3600  The  Spartans,  on  taking  Athens,  set  up  thirty  tyrants,  who 
scourge  the  city  with  horrid  cruelties. 

3601  Thrasybitlus  expels  the  tyrants,  and  delivers  Athens.     He 
had  found  refuge  from  the  tyrants  at  Thebes. 

3602  Cyrus  the  younger,  governor  of  Asia  Minor,  prepares  to  at- 
tack and  dethrone  his  brother  Artaxerxes,  king  of  Persia. 

3603  Defeat  and  death  of  Cyrus  at  Cunaxa.     Retreat  of  10,000 
Greeks,  conducted  and  narrated  by  Xenophon.     Death  of 
Socrates. 

3604  Sparta,  now  the  predominant  power  of  Greece,  pursues  a 
haughty  and  oppressive  course  with  the  Greeks,  and  makes 
war  on  Tissaphernes  and  Pharnabasus,  Persian  governors  of 
Asia  Minor. 

3607  Agesilaus  elected  king  of  Sparta,  proves  a  great  king,  acts 
a  conspicuous  part  in  Asia  Minor,  threatening  the  Persian 
empire. 

3610  Corinthian  league,  formed  by  the  oppressed  states  of  Greece, 
and  furnished  with  Persian  gold,  to  check  the  daring  enter- 
prises of  Sparta.  Conon,  with  his  own  ten  ships,  and  a  fleet 
furnished  by  the  king  of  Persia,  defeats  the  Spartans,  restores 
to  Athens  the  dominion  of  the  sea,  and  returns  to  Athens 
after  eleven  years'  absence ;  and  with  Spartan  spoil  repairs 
the  wanton  waste  and  ruin  which  the  Spartans,  in  3600,  had 
committed  on  the  walls,  towers,  and  citadel.  By  these  vari- 
ous movements  and  events  Agesilaus  is  recalled  to  defend 
Sparta.  After  the  victory  of  Conon,  Athens  gradually  reco- 
vers splendour,  power,  and  many  of  its  rich  provinces  in 
Thrace  and  the  ^Egean  Sea. 

3617  Antalcidas.  The  Spartans,  finding  it  impossible  to  domineer 
over  the  states  of  Greece  as  far  as  they  wished,  made  a  mean 
peace  with  Persia,  Antalcidas  being  the  Spartan  negociator. 
— This  treaty  required  Thebes,  Corinth,  Argos,  and  even 
Athens,  to  abandon  all  their  dependent  cities.  The  Spartans 


INDEX.  91 

resolved,  however,  to  retain  all  their  rights  and  dependants, 
having  meanly  purchased  the  favour  of  that  king  of  Persia 
whose  dominions  they  had  lately  invaded. 

3623  Thebes  perfidiously  taken  by  a  Spartan  army,  which  en- 
tered the  city  under  the  guise  of  friendship.  The  same  cru- 
elties acted  as  at  Athens. 

3627  Thebes  delivered  by  Pelopidas  and  Epaminondas.  The 
former  returned  in  disguise  from  Athens  as  Thrasybulus  did 
from  Thebes.  From  this  time  there  is  one  continued  strug- 
gle between  Thebes  and  Sparta,  until  3641,  when  Thebes 
was  triumphant,  and  Sparta  humbled  at  Mantinea. 

3633  Battle  of  Leuctra  in  Bceotia — Pelopidas  and  Epaminondas 
gloriously  triumph. 

3634  Philip  of  Macedon  carried  a  hostage  to  Thebes  ten  years 
before  he  was  made  king. 

3641  Battle  of  Mantinea  in  Arcadia.  Epaminondas  again  hum- 
bles Sparta,  but  dies  full  of  glory.  Thebes  and  Athens  are 
now  the  predominant  powers,  until  Philip  appears. 

3644  Philip,  the  youngest  of  several  brothers,  had  been  carried  as 
a  hostage  to  Thebes  by  Ptlopidas,  who  arbitrated  a  dispute 
between  the  brothers.  Philip,  on  hearing  of  the  death  of  his 
last  brother,  privately  escaped  from  Thebes,  and  ascended  a 
throne  beset  by  competitors,  to  rule  a  small,  inland,  distress- 
ed and  ravaged  country.  He  was  instructed  by  the  best  mas- 
ters of  the  wisest  age  of  Greece;  cool,  politic,  shrewd,  wily, 
ambitious  and  enterprizing;  a  profound  politician,  accom- 
plished scholar,  and  consummate  dissembler;  companiona- 
ble, affable,  facetious.  What  was  wanting  was  an  honest 
heart. 

3646     War  of  Athens  with  its  allies. 

3650  Sacred  war. 

3651  Philip  takes  Methone. 

3652 

Demosthenes  Philip  prevented  from  taking  Thermopylae. 

3556     Philip  takes  Olynthus. 

3657  Philip  seizes  Thermopylae,  punishes  the  Phocians,  and  be- 
comes in  place  of  them  a  member  of  the  Amphyctionic 
Council. 

3665  The  Athenian  Phocion  compels  Philip  to  raise  the  siege  of 
Byzantium  and  Perinthus. 

3666  Battle  of  Ch&rnnea.      Philip,  having  finished  another  sa- 
cred   war,   had   alarmed  and  united  Tliebes  and  Atheps  by 
taking  Elatea,  but  defeated  both  at  Chaeronea. 


92  INDEX. 

3667  Philip  declared  at  Corinth  generalissimo  of  all  Greece  against 
Persia. 

3668  Philip  assassinated — Alexander  succeeds. 

3670  Alexander  with  30,000  Greeks  invades  the  Persian  empire, 
defeats  Darius  at  the  river  Grancius,  reduces  the  cities  that 
resist  him,  and  subjects  Asia  Minor. 

3671  Alexander  gains  the  battle  and  the  pass  of  Issus,  and  enters 
Syria  ;  besieges  Tyre  seven  months  and  takes  it;  Jerusalem 
is  delivered  to  him  by  Jaddus  the  high  priest. 

3672  Gaza  surrenders  after  a  siege  of  three  months,  and  Egypt, 
so  long  disaffected  to  the   Persians,  submits  without  resis^ 
tance.     Alexandria  founded. 

3673  Battle  of  Arbela,     Darius  defeated  the  third  time.     Mace- 
donian empire  succeeds  the  Persian,     Alexander  takes  Ba- 
bylon, Susa,  Persepolis,  marches  into  India,  and  conquers  as 
far  as  his  troops  will  follow. 

3681  Alexander  dies,  aged  33,  at  Babylon,  while  he  is  endeavour- 
ing to  reinstate  that  city  in  iis  splendour  and  make  it  his 
capital.     Philip  Aridaeus  and  Alexander  JEgus  sham  kings. 
Empire  divided. 

3682  Lamian  war — so  called  because  the  revolted  Athenians  at- 
tacked  Antipater  at  Lamia.     Antipater  prevailed  and  took 
Athens.     Death  of  Demosthenes. 

3683  Body  of  Alexander  carried  to  Egypt.     Antigonus  and  AntN 
pater  league  against  Eumenes   and  the  regent  Perdiccas. 
Perdiccas  killed — Antipater  regent  in  his  stead. 

3685  Antipater  dies.  Polysphercon  is  regent  in  his  stead,  and  is 
opposed  by  Lysander,  son  of  Antipater.  Phocion  condemn- 
ed. Cassander  seizes  Athens,  and  makes  Demetrius  Phale- 
reus  governor. 

3687  Olympia  puts  to  death  Aridaeus  and  his  wife  Euridice,  and 
is  hersejf  soon  after  killed  by  Cassander. 

3689  Eumenes,  governor  of  Cappadocia,  after  being  pursued  from 
Cappadocia  to  Syria,  and  from  thence  to  the  Euphrates,  long 
supporting  the  character  of  a  great  general,  is  at  last  basely 
murdered  by  his  troops.  From  this  time  Antigonus  is  con- 
stantly encroaching  on  the  rights  and  territories  of  the  other 
generals,  and  provokes  them  to  that  final  conflict  that  ended 
at  Jpsus  in  his  defeat  and  death. 

3691  Antigonus  and  his  strange  son  Poliorcetes  take  Tyre  after 
a  seige  of  fifteen  months. 

3692  Zeno  founds  the  sect  of  the  Stoics  at  Athens. 


INDEX. 


93 


3693  Seleueus  takes  Babylon  and  the  neighbouring  provinces. 
Ptolemy  takes  a  great  number  of  Jews  to  Alexandria.  Cas- 
sander  kills  Roxanna  and  her  infant  son. 

3695  Polysphercon,  after  attempting  to  make  use  of  young  Her- 
cules against  Cassander,  basely  murdered  him  to  gain  Gas- 
sander  to  his  interest. 

3696  Ophelias,  governor  of  Lybia,  revolts  against   Ptolemy  of 
Egypt. 

3698  Demetrius  Poliorcetes  takes  Athens,  Cyprus,  and  Salamis. 
The  governors  assume  the  title  of  kings. 

3700     Celebrated  seige  of  Rhodes  by  Demetrius,  which  fails. 

.3702  Antigonus  and  Demetrius  now  lords  of  Asia  by  rapine  and 
cruelty,  and  by  threatening  the  other  princes.  Cassander, 
Lysimachus,  Ptolemy,  and  Seleueus  league  against  them.  . 

3703  Battle  of  Ipsus.     Antigonus  killed  and  his  strange  son  De- 
metrius Poliorcetes  flies  with  a  small  army  to  be  the  sport 
of  fortune  a  little  longer. 

3704  Seleueus  builds  Antioch  in  Syria.  The  Athenians  reject  the 
fugitive  Demetrius  Poliorcetes,  who  still  however  possesses 
Cyprus,  Tyre,  Sidon,  some  towns  in  the  Peloponessus  and 
elsewhere. 

3707  Cassander  dies.  The  famous  Pyrrhus,  king  of  Epirus,  who 
had  been  driven  out  of  his  kingdom,  this  year  marries  Anti- 
gona,  step-daughter  of  Ptolemy,  who  gives  him  a  fleet,  with 
which  he  returns  to  Epirus  and  regains  his  kingdom. 

3709  Demetrius,  after  wandering  about,  plundering,  &c.,  for  seve- 
ral years,  returns  to  Athens,  which  he  retakes,  but  soon  after 
hears  that  Ptolemy  had  taken  Cyprus. 

3710  Demetrius,  soon  after  hearing  of  the  loss  of  Cyprus,  is  invited 
to  Macedon  by  Alexander,  son  of  Cassander,  whom  he  kills 
and  succeeds. 

3711  Seleueus  founds  Seleucia  near  Babylon,  which  causes  the 
rapid  decay  of  Babylon. 

3715     Death  of  the  atrocious  Agathocles,  tyrant  of  Syracuse,  after  a 
bloody  reign  of  twenty-eight  years. 

3717  Pyrrhus  on  one  side,  and  Lysimachus  on  the  other,  invade 
Macedon,  and  drive  out  Demetrius,  who  was  preparing  to 
invade  them.     Demetrius  wanders  into  Asia,  falls  into  the 
hands  of  Seleueus,  who  confines  him  on  an  island  till  he  dies. 
Lysimachus  unites  Macedon  and  Thrace. 

3718  Lysimachus,  after  driving  out  his  friend  Pyrrhus,  rules  in 
Macedon  and  Thrace,  after  which  there  is  no  distinct  king' 
dom  of  Thrace, 


94  INDEX. 

3719  Pergamus  becomes  a  kingdom  under  Philetaerus,  who  held 
the  city  and  large  treasures  for  Lysimachus,  which  Phile- 
taerus now  appropriates  to  himself. 

3723  Lysimachus  and  his  son  Agathocles  marry  Arsinoe  and 
Lysandra,  daughters  of  Ptolemy.  Their  brother,  Ptolemy 
Ceraunus,  fled  from  his  brother  Philadelphus,  but  found  a 
poor  refuge  with  his  sisters,  who  were  quarrelling. 

3723  Ptolemy  Ceraunus  flies  from  the  bloody  court  of  Lysima- 
chus, and  persuades  Seleucus  to  make  war  upon  him.     Ly- 
simachus was  killed,  and  Thrace  and  Macedon  fell  to  Seleu- 
cus, who  was  killed  by  Ceraunus  after  entering  Macedon. 

3724  Ceraunus,  after  the  atrocious  murder  of  his  benefactor  Seleu- 
cus,  kills  his  sister's  children  by  Lysimachus.     Pyrrhus, 

.  .  invited  by  the  Greeks  of  Tarentum,  enters  Italy  and  gains 

several  victories  over  the  Romans. 

3725  Pyrrhus  in  Italy.     A  swarm  of  Gauls  break  into  Macedon 
and  kill  Ceraunus,  who  is  succeeded  by  Meleager. 

3726  Pyrrhus  abandons  his  fortune  in  Italy,  and  seeks  new  hon- 
ours in  Sicily. 

3727  Ptolemy  Philadelphus  is  said  to  have  carried  seventy  Jews 
to  Egypt  to  make  the  Septuagint  version  of  the  Old  Testa- 
ment :  this  is  not  the  received  opinion. 

3728  Antigonus  Gonatus,  who  had  succeeded  his  father  in  the 
cities  of  Greece,  this  year  came  to  fill  the  vacant  throne, 
from  which  his  father  had  been  driven  ten  years  before. 

3729  Antigonus  and  Antiochus  quarrel  about  Macedon ;  the  dis- 
pute is  settled  by  a  marriage  ;  and  the  posterity  of  old  Anti- 
gonus, and  his  son,  Demetrius  Poliorcetes,  fill  the  throne  un- 
til 3836.     Antiochus  receives  the  name  of  Soter  for  defeating 
the  Gauls  who  invaded  Macedon.     They  settle  in  Thrace. 

3730  Pyrrhus  flies  back  to  Italy  and  is  defeated  by  the  Romans, 
then  flies  to  Macedon,  and  drives  out  Antigonus  till  '33. 

3732  Pyrrhus  tries  in  vain  to  conquer  Sparta. 

3733  Pyrrhus  killed  at  the  siege  of  Argos  by  a  tile  thrown  by  a 
mother  who  saw  his  sword  raised  to  kill  her  son.     After 
this  the  race  of  Antigonus  and  Demetrius  reign  uninterrupt- 
ed in  Macedon,  till  3836. 

3736  Antigonus  Gonatus  returns  to  Macedon  (33)  after  the  death 
of  Pyrrhus.  From  this  time  there  is  o/ie  continued  struggle 
between  his  descendants  on  one  side,  and  the  states  of  Greece 
on  the  other. 


INDEX.  «& 

3739  Abautidas  kills  Clinias  the  governor,  and  masters  Sycion. 
Magus,  governor  of  Lybia,  revolts  against  Ptolemy. 

3740  Punic  war  (actual  year) — the  first  war  the  Romans  carried 
out  of  Italy,  having  been  employed  500  years  in  conquering 
the  different  Italian  states. 

3741  Eumenes  in  Pergamus. 

3743     Berosus  of  Babylon,  the  historian. 
3746    Magus  and  Ptolemy  reconciled. 

3749  A  war  between  Antiochus  of  Syria  and  Ptolemy. 

3750  Punic  war,  (tenth  year.)  Achaean  league : — a  league  of  twelve 
cities  which  had  existed  for  some  time,  but  now  for  the  first 
time  becomes  important.     Parthia,  revolting  from  Antiochus 
Theos,  separated  from  Syria — afterwards  an  empire.    These 
wars  and  the  Achaean  league  began  about  the  same  time, 
and  ended  the  same  year,  3858. 

3752  Aratus,  son  of  Clinias,  delivers  Sicyon  from  tyranny,  and 
unites  it  to  the  Achaean  league. 

3755  Antiochus  and  Ptolemy  make  peace  on  condition  that  Anti- 
ochus divorce  his  wife  Laodice,  and  marry  Berenice,  daugh- 
ter of  Ptolemy. 

3756  Agis  4th  of  Sparta,  endeavours  to  restore  the  severe  laws  of 
Lycurgus. 

3757  Ptolemy  Evergetes  reigns. 

3758  The  divorced  Laodice  poisons  her  husband  after  he  had  re- 
ceived her  again,  and  proclaims  Callinicus  her  son.     Bere- 
nice and  her  son  were  assassinated'.     Ptolemy  Evergetes 
enters  Syria,  lays  it  waste,  and  takes  ample  revenue. 

3760  Aratus  takes  Corinth  by  a  daring  enterprise  from  the  king 
of  Macedon,  and  unites  it  to  the  Achaean  league,  as  he  had 
done  his  native  city  Sicyon.  King  Agis  fails  in  his  attempts 
to  restore  the  laws  of  Lycurgus,  and  is  put  to  death. 

3762  Antigonus  Gonatus  dies.  Seleucus  Callinicus  has  a  fearful 
war  with  his  brother  Hierax. 

3764  End  of  the  first  Punic  tear,  after  continuing  twenty-four 
years.  The  Romans  gained  Sicily  and  the  dominion  of  the 
sea,  which  Carthage  had  long  possessed. 

3772  Antigonus  Doson  reigns  in  Macedon  as  guardian  to  his  cou- 
sin Philip,  afterwards  king. 

3774  Seleucus  Callinicus  taken  prisoner  in  Parthia  which  he  is 
attempting  to  recover. 


96  INDEX. 

3776  Cleomenes,  king  of  Sparta,  gains  a  great  victory  over  Aratus 
and  the  Achaeans. 

3777  Seleucus  dies  in  Parthia.     Ceraunus  succeeds.     Aratus  de- 
feats Aristippus  of  Argos,  and  gains  Megalopolis  to  the 
Achaean  league. 

3779  The  Romans  humble  Teuta,  queen  of  the  piratical  Illyrians. 
They  send  a  famous  embassy  to  notify  the  Grecians  of  their 
treaty.  The  embassy  treated  with  extraordinary  marks  of 
honour.  Aratus  calls  Antigonus  Doson  king  of  Macedon  to 
aid  him  against  Sparta.  This  was  contemptible  policy,  since 
it  was  the  aim  of  the  Achaean  league  to  repel  the  kings  of 
Macedon. 

3781  Aratus  and  Antigonus  combined  defeat  Cleomenes  king  of 
Sparta,  at  Sellasia.     Sparta  is  taken.    Cleomenes  has  to  flee 
to  Egypt.  Antiochus  the  Great  reigns.     His  great  cotempo- 
raries  were  Philip,  Hannibal,   Fabius,   Marcellus,  and  the 
Scipios ;  on  these  depended  the  destinies  of  Greece,  Rome, 
and  Carthage. 

3782  The  Colossus  of  Rhodes  thrown  down  by  an  earthquake. 

3783  Ptolemy  Philopater.     The  ^Etolians  figure  in  Greece,  and 
gain  a  great  victory  over  the  the  Achaeans.     Philip  of  Ma- 
cedon. 

3784  Antiochus  the  Great  resolves  to  recover  Parthia.     He  actu- 
ally recovers  Media  and  Persia  which  had  lately  revolted. 
Cleomenes  dies  in  Egypt  basely  treated. 

3787  Battle  of  Rapha. 

3788  Second   Punic   war.     Hannibal,   Carthaginian   general   of 
Spain,  crosses  the  Pyrrhenean  mountains  into  Gaul,  and  the 
Alps  into  Italy,  and  gains  several  victories, 

3790  Philip  of  Macedon  being  leagued  with  Hannibal,  the  Ro- 
mans send  sufficient  forces  and  money  to  employ  him  while 
Hannibal  is  at  their  gates. 

3792  Syracuse  taken  by  Marcellus  the  Roman  general,  after  a 
siege  of  three  years.  The  Romans  were  nearly  baffled  by 
the  machines  of  Archimedes. 

3800  Antiochus  the  Great  defeats  the  Egyptians  and  takes  the 
Holy  Land.  Scipio  conquers  Spain.   The  Egyptians  cravethe 
protection  of  the  Romans  against  Antiochus  the  Great  and 
Philip  of  Macedon.     From  this  the  Romans  make  rapid  ad^ 
vances  by  the  power  of  their  arms,  and  the  terror  of  their 
name,  and  by  the  array  of  petty  states  against  larger  ones. 

3801  A  league  between  Philip  and  Antiochus  the  Great  against 
Egypt,  obliges  the  young  king  Ptolemy  to  put  himself  under 


INDEX.  97 

to  put  himself  under  the  protection  of  the  Romans,  who  from 
that  time  become  arbiters  in  the  affairs  of  Egypt. 

3803  Scipio  having  boldly  landed  in  Africa,  Hannibal  is  recalled 
and  defeated  by  Scipio  at  Zama.     Carthage  city  stands,  the 
empire  destroyed,  despoiled,   and  not  permitted  to  repel  the 
attacks  of  its  neighbours. 

3804  Romans  make  war   on  Philip  2d   of  Macedon   (for  four 
years.) 

3806  Some  say  that  this  is  the  year  that  Antiochus  the  Great  took 
Palestine.     It  seems,  however,  that  it  was  five  or  six  vears 
earlier.     The   Achaeans   and   ^Etolians  join   the  Romans 
against  Philip. 

3807  Nabis,  tyrant  of  Sparta,  joins  the  Romans  against  Philip. 

3808  Battle  of  Cenocephale.     Philip  humbled,  and  both  Macedon 
and  Greece  are  subjected  to  Roman  dictation.     The  smaller 
states  of  Greece  and  Asia  seem  to  court  the  Roman  yoke. 

3813  Battle  of  Magnesia.     Antiochus  the  Great,  after  traversing 
Asia  into  India,  with  a  triumphant  march,  taking  Palestine 
from  Ptolemy,  exercising  great  power  in  Asia  Minor  and 
Greece,  is  humbled  at  Magnesia  in  Asia  Minor  by  Scipio 
Asiaticus,  who  pursued  him  out  of  Greece,  and  compelled 
him  to  plunder  his  people  and  pay  tribute  to  the  Romans, 
who  become  umpires  of  the  East. 

3814  Philopoemen  makes  the  Spartans  join  the  Achaean  league. 

3815  The  jEtolians,  who  had  joined  the  Romans  against  Philip, 
now  assist  Antiochus  the  Great  against  the  Romans,  and 
were  this  year  humbled  and  severely  chastised. 

3821     Philopoemen  dies,  often  called  the  last  of  the  Greeks. 

3830  Antiochus  Epiphanes  deposes  Onias,  a  high  priest  of  the 
Jews,  and  sells  the  office  to  Jason. 

3833  Antiochus  Epiphanes  makes  war   on   Ptolemy  Philopater, 
and  the  Romans  on  Perseus  three  years. 

3834  Antiochus  Epiphanes  makes  himself  master  of  all  Egypt, 
takes  the  young  king  Ptolemy  prisoner,  and  commits  horrid 
cruelties  at  Jerusalem  on  his  return. 

3836  Battle  of  Pydna.  Macedon  conquered.  Perseus  carried 
to  Rome  by  Paulus  JEmilius.  Pretended  freedom,  real  tri- 
bute and  slavery.  Macedon  not  declared  a  Roman  province 
until  3856,  twenty  years  after. 

1000  principal  men  of  the  Achaeans,  including  the  historian 
Polybius,  summoned  to  Rome.     Antiochus  Epiphanes  goes 
13 


98  INDEX. 

to  Jerusalem  to  enforce  his  decree  against  religion.     Death 
of  Eleazer.     Martyrdom  of  Maccabaeus. 

3838  Death  of  Matthias  Maccabaeus.  Judas  succeeds  him  and 
triumphs.  The  Holy  Land  becomes  independent  of  Syria. 

3843  Judas  Maccabaeus  dies  after  victories  and  prodigies  of  valour, 
and  leaving  his  country  in  fact  independent,  although  the 
struggle  continues  under  his  brothers. 

3852  Andriscus,  pretending  to  be  the  son  of  Perseus  and  king  of 
Macedon,  is  subdued.  The  Romans  refuse  Carthage  per- 
mission to  defend  itself  against  Massanissa.  A  cruel  war 
ensues  because  it  attempts  to  defend  itself  without  permis- 
sion. 

3854     Third  Punic  war. 

3858  The  destruction  of  the  city  of  Carthage  by  the  younger  Scipio 
Africanus  finishes  the  Punic  wars,  after  118  years.  The 
destruction  of  Corinth  prostrates  the  Achaean  league,  108 
years  after  Aratus  had  united  Sycion  to  it.  Spain,  Greece, 
Macedon,  and  Africa  belong  to  the  Romans.  The  terror  of 
their  name  is  sufficient  in  Asia  and  Egypt,  where  princes 
are  allowed  to  reign  provided  they  do  nothing  to  offend  the 
Romans.  Domestic  convulsions  suspend  the  career  of  con- 
quest until  3900,  when  Pompey  conquers  the  East. 

3863  Numantia,  a  rebe^  city  of  Spain,  resists  Rome  for  a  long 
time.  Demetrius  Nicator  taken  prisoner  in  Parthia. 

3871  Tiberius  Gracchus,  a  popular  orator,  proposes  an  Agrarian 
law,  or  the  division  of  the  lands  of  Pergamus,  just  bequeathed 
to  Rome  by  the  last  king.  Gracchus  is  killed. 

3883  Caius  Gracchus  imitates  the  popular  acts  of  his  brother,  and 
like  him  is  killed  in  a  tumult. 

3890  Syria,  already  reduced  to  a  small  province  by  dismember- 
ment, is  divided  into  two  hostile  kingdoms,  Antioch  and  Da- 
mascus. 

3893  Numidia.     Jugurtha,  after  supplanting  his  cousins,  after  de- 
fying the  Romans  and  resisting  their  best  generals  for  five 
years,  is  carried  to  Rome  and  starved  to  death  in  a  prison. 

3894  Marius  and  Sylla  supplant  Metellus  in  the  command  against 
Jugurtha. 

3893  Teutones  and  Cimbri  threaten  for  eight  years  to  rush  into 
tke  fair  field  and  fine  climate  of  ItaJy,  and  extinguish  the 
Roman  name. 

3903     Teutones  and  Cimbri  defeated. 

3907    Ptolemy  Apion  bequeaths  Cyrene  to  Rome. 


INDEX.  99 

3913  Social  tear,  (three  years,)  called  also  the  Marcian  war.  The 
Italian  Socii  or  Allies,  long  since  subdued,  revolt  against 
Rome,  and  demand  the  privilege  of  voting  at  Rome.  A  Ro- 
man civil  war  was  between  two  Romans,  or  Roman  armies. 
A  social  war  was  between  the  Italian  Socii  or  Allies  and 
.  Rome. 

3915  Mithridates  causes  80,000  Romans  to  be  massacred  in  Asia 
Minor.     The  consequence  was   the  Mithridatic  war.      Mi- 
thridates makes  himself  master  of  Greece  and  Asia  Minor. 
The  Romans  had  to  finish  the  Marcian  war  by  yielding  their 
demands  to  some  of  the  allies,  and  thus  dividing  the  confede- 
racy. 

3916  Old  Marius  tries  to  supplant  Sylla  in  the  command  against 
Mithridates.     Sylla  marches  his  army  to  Rome,  drives  Ma- 
rius out,  who,  after  astonishing  exploits  and  escapes,  arrives 
at  the  ruins  of  Carthage. 

3917  Sylla  meets  Archelaus,  son  of  Mithridates,  in  Greece,  and 
civil  war.  recovers  Athens  from  him  after  a  destructive  siege. 

3618  Sylla  gains  the  victories  of  Cheronaea  and  Orchomenos  over 
Archelaus.  Marius  again  in  Rome,  triumphant,  sends  Fim- 
bria  and  Flaccus  to  supplant  Sylla,  but  Sylla  prevails. 

3920  Fimbria's  legions  desert  and  join  Sylla.     Fimbria  falls  on 
his  own  sword, 

3921  The  rivalship  and  commotions  amongst  the  numerous  and 
feeble   Seleucidae   induced   the    Syrians  to  make  Tigranes 
king  of  Armenia  their  king.     He  reigned  fourteen  years. 

3922  Sylla  returns  to  Italy,  and  triumphs  over  the  faction  of  Ma- 
rius.     Young   Pompey  and   Crassus  appear  on  his   side. 
Cato  and  Cicero  begin  their  career.     Julius  Caesar  being 
nephew  to  Marius  has  to  fly. 

3923  Sylla  Dictator,  after  defeating  Marius  in  two  civil  wars, 
and  triumphing  over  Mithridates  in  the  interval. 

3925    Sylla  abdicates  and  dies  two  years  after. 

3928  Bithynia  and  Gyrene  bequeathed  to  Rome,  take  the  condi- 
tion of  Roman  provinces. 

3929  Second  and  third  Mitkridatic  wars.    Lucullus  and  Cotta  Ro- 
man commanders. 

3931  Servile  war,  or  insurrection  of  slaves  and  gladiators  under 
Spartacus.  Sertorius  subdued  by  Pompey  and  Metellus. 
Sertorius  was  assassinated  by  his  companion  Perpenna. 

3933  Mithridates  and  Spartacus.  The  former,  defeated  by  Lucul- 
lus, flies  to  his  son-in-law  Tigranes,  king  of  Armenia.  Spar- 
tacus destroyed,  and  the  servile  war  finished  by  Crassus  and 
Pompey. 


100  INDEX. 

3937  Mutiny  of  the  soldiers  of  Lucullus,  through  which  Mithri- 
dates  recovers  his  dominions.     Foreign  conquest  resumed 
after  a  long  interval  of  domestic  convulsions,  from  the  taking 
of  Carthage  and  Corinth,  3858. 

3938  Pompey,   after  destroying  the  pirates  who  had  infested  the 
Mediterranean,  is  appointed  to  supersede  Lucullus,  whose 
army  would  not  obey  him.     He  makes  Mithridates  fly  and 
Tigranes  surrender. 

3939  Pompey  subdues  Syria,  and  substantially  the  Holy  Land,  by 
interfering  between  the  contending  Maccabee  brothers. 

3941  Cataline's  conspiracy  defeated  by  Cicero.  Caesar  pleads  for 
a  milder  punishment  for  the  conspirators :  he  wished  to  re- 
vive the  faction  of  his  uncle  Marius. 

3944  First  Triumvirate.  Pompey  has  already  won  laurels  over 
the  whole  empire.  Csesar  goes  to  gather  his  in  Gaul,  which 
he  conquers  in  ten  years.  Crassus  chooses  the  East  for  its 
riches  and  splendour. 

3946  Cicero  banished  (recalled  next  year)  by  the  arts  and  jealous- 
ies of  the  triumvirs.  Cato  takes  Cyprus  from  Ptolemy. 
Berenice  usurps  the  throne  of  her  father  Ptolemy  Auletes. 

3949  Gabinius  and  Marc  Antony  restore  Auletes  to  his  throne, 
for  which  he  is  chiefly  indebted  to  the  influence  of  Pompey. 

3951  Crassus  killed  in  Parthia,  which  he  invaded,  blinded  by 
avarice  and  ambition.  Misled  by  treacherous  guides,  he 
saw  his  son  and  friends  miserably  perish,  and  was  perfidi- 
ously killed  by  Surena  the  Parthian  general,  at  an  interview 
craved  by  the  latter. 

3953  Csesar,  having  finished  the  conquest  of  Gaul,  was  command- 
ed by  the  Roman  senate,  with  Pompey  at  their  head,  to  dis- 
band his  armies :    he  refused,  unless  Pompey  would  also 
disband  his  in  Spain  and  elsewhere,  crossed  the  Rubicon, 
the  sacred  boundary  between  Gaul  and  Rome.     Pompey 
and  the  senate  fled  into  Greece.     Italy,  &c.  submitted. 

3954  Civil  war  of  Pompey  and  Julius  Csesar.     Italy  submits  to 
Caesar,  who  also  conquered  Spain,  occupied  by  Pompey's 
troops. 

3956  Battle  of  Pharsalia.     Csesar,  with  the  forces  of  the  West, 
conquers  Pompey,  who  drew  his  forces  from  the  East.  Pom- 
pey's flight.    Vale  of  Tempe.    JEgean  Sea.    Egypt.    Basely 
betrayed  and  assassinated. 

3957  Caesar  takes  Alexandria,  after  a  perilous  quarrel  with  Ptole- 
my Diogenes,  brother  of  Cleopatra.     He  wastes  much  time 
in  Egypt,  while  Cato  holds  out  in  Africa  and  young  Pompey 
in  Spain. 

3958  African  war.    Cato  kills  himself.     Juba. 

3959  Battle  of  Munda  in  Spain.    Csesar  defeats  Pompey's  sons. 

3960  Caesar  murdered  by  Brutus  and  Cassius,  republicans. 


INDEX.  101 

3961  Second    Triumvirate.         Octavius,    Antony,   and   Lepidus 
united.     After   Octavius  and  Antony  had  quarrelled  nearly 
a  year,  Octavius,  aided  by   Cicero  and  the  senate,  gained 
the  superiority  in  the  battle  of  Mutina.      These   atrocious 
triumvirs  abandon  their  best  friends  to  satisfy  their  respective 
resentments.     Octavius  resigns  his  friend  Cicero  to  the  re- 
sentment of  Antony,  &c. 

3962  Battle  of  Philippi.      Octavius  and  Antony  defeat  Brutus 
and  Cassius,  who  destroy  themselves.     They  divide  the  em- 
pire, Antony  taking  the  East  and  Octavius  me  West. 

3964  Antony  makes  a  disastrous  expedition  into  Parthia — neglects 
his  affairs  for  Cleopatra. 

3965  Ventidius  defeats  Pacorus  the  Parthian  general,  and  retrieves 
the  honour  lost  by  Crassus  and  Marc  Antony. 

3968  Young  Pompey,  who  till  this  time  retained  considerable 
power,  and  eluded  the  triumvirs,  is  this  year  defeated  by  Au- 
gustus in  a  sea  fight. 

3972  Great  preparations  for  war  between  Antony  and  Octaviua. 
Antony  had  abandoned  himself  to  pleasures  and  vanities,  and 
neglected  his  affairs  for  Cleopatra. 

3973  Civil  war.     Battle  of  Actium.     Octavius  Cassar  defeats  An- 
tony and  Cleopatra ;  and  now  the  Roman  world,  which  had 
been  so  long  convulsed,  and  for  the  last  ten  years  divided, 
falls  to  Octavius. 

3974  After  Antony  and  Cleopatra  had  returned  to  Egypt  and  mi- 
serably perished  by  suicide,   Octavius  took  Alexandria,  and 
made  Egypt  a  Roman  province,  after  it  had  been  under  Ro- 
man guardianship  173  years,  from  3800. 

3977  The  adulation  of  the  Roman  senate  confers  the  title  of  Au- 
gustus on  Octavius. 

The  conspiracy  of  Mursena  against  Augustus. 
Augustus  visits  Greece  and  Asia. 

The  Roman  ensign  recovered  from  the  Parthians  by  Tibe- 
rius, afterwards  emperor. 

3987  Secular  games  celebrated, 

3988  Lollius  defeated  by  the  Germans. 

3989  The  Raeti  and  Vindelici  defeated  by  Drusus. 

3992  The  Pannonians  conquered  by  Tiberius. 

3993  Several  German  nations  conquered  by  Drusus. 
3998  Tiberius  retires  to  Rhodes  for  seven  years. 
4000  Birth  of  Christ,  actual  year. 

4004  or  1  According  to  the  vulgar  era. 


Outline  of  History,  from  Augustus  to  Charlemagne, 
A.D.  800. 


Historical  Sketches  of  the  Roman  Emperors,  from  Augustus  to  the 
extinction  of  the  Western  Empire.  A.D.  476. 

AUGUSTUS.  View  him,  at  the  death  of  his  uncle  Julius,  returning 
Died  A.D.  14.  fr0m  school,  aged  19,  blending,  even  then,  with  the 
most  uncommon  coolness,  resolution,  and  sagacity,  all  the  address  and 
dexterity  of  mature  experience.  In  art  and  dissimulation  consum- 
mate and  profound ;  disguising  his  thirst  of  glory  under  the  specious 
pretext  of  pursuing  public  justice,  and  vengeance  for  his  murdered 
uncle ;  cloaking  his  lust  of  power  under  professions  of  republican  ar- 
dour and  devotion ;  blinding  the  aged  vision  of  Cicero  to  win  the  senate 
against  Antony,  taking  into  his  bosom  his  half  subdued  enemy,  after 
duly  searching  his  person  for  concealed  daggers;  and  to  this  new  friend 
sacrificing  the  former  dupes  of  his  duplicity,  not  sparing  the  silvery 
head  of  Cicero,  to  whose  influence  he  owed  his  prosperity.  View 
him  tampering  with  the  soldiers,  and  promising  them  the  farms  of  in- 
nocent thousands,  if  they  followed  him  to  victory.  Witness  him  joined 
with  the  profligate  and  unprincipled  Antony,  hunting  the  assassins  of 
his  uncle,  after  he  had  promised  them  peace  and  indemnity,  to  gain 
their  acquiescence  in  his  measures  against  the  same  Antony.  Observe 
his  politic  forbearance  towards  the  same  Antony  for  ten  years,  while 
he  ruled  the  West  and  Antony  the  East,  till  he  finds  his  strength  ade- 
quate to  the  defeat  and  overthrow  of  his  rival.  After  all  his  triumphs, 
when  every  arm  was  paralyzed  but  his  own,  when  all  resistance  was 
confounded,  all  authority  centred  in  him  alone,  as  the  source  and  foun- 
tain of  law  and  command,  his  habitual  duplicity  flowed  on,  as  if  it  was 
the  element  in  which  he  lived,  and  as  inseparable  from  his  existence 
as  the  air.  In  the  exercise  of  boundless  prerogative  and  power  £he 
preserved,  with  the  most  scrupulous  care,  the  ancient  forms  of  adminis- 
tration. The  powers  of  consul,  tribune,  censor,  and  pontiff  were  all 
lavished  on  him  for  life ;  while  his  colleagues  were,  in  form,  chosen 
by  the  senate  and  people.  His  government  was  an  absolute  monarchy, 
disguised  by  the  forms  of  a  commonwealth.  He  was  the  humble  min- 
ister of  the  senate,  and  obeyed  their  edicts,  because  he  dictated  them. 

TIBERIUS.  As  a  prince  and  public  man,  his  talents  and  acquire- 
AJD.14.  rnents  were  highly  respectable;  his  mind  was  richly 
cultivated,  his  ideas  and  words  flowed  with  enviable  ease  and  readi- 
ness ;  he  was  acquainted  with  public  life ;  an  able  and  expert  magis- 
trate, and  a  respectable  general.  His  virtues,  however,  were  not  fixed, 
his  principles  were  loose,  he  was  easily  seduced  by  bad  example  or 
precept,  and  wanted  the  restraint  of  a  virtuous  community  to  fix  his 
good  and  check  his  bad  propensities.  Naturally  dark  and  dissembling, 


ROMAN      EMPERORS. 

by  the  precepts  and  example  of  Augustus,  he  became,  on  the  throne, 
chiefly  conspicuous  for  those  qualities,  which,  under  different  circum- 
stances, might  have  been  concealed,  or  discoverable  only  in  a  common 
and  moderate  degree.  If  he  was  naturally  distrustful,  his  fortune  and 
experience,  as  well  as  the  obvious  corruption  and  prevailing  hypocrisy 
of  his  age,  were  calculated  to  multiply  and  confirm  his  worst  suspi- 
cions. If  he  proved  cruel  at  last,  it  was  more  from  the  disgust,  con- 
tempt, and  fear  that  the  heartless  adoration  of  some  men,  and  the  dark 
machinations  of  others  engendered,  than  from  any  innate  desire  to 
cause  or  witness  human  suffering.  Thus  far  and  no  farther  truth  and 
candour  can  go  in  extenuating  the  atrocious  reign  of  this  emperor. 

In  imitation  of  his  artful  master,  he  pretended  to  decline  the  weight 
of  imperial  authority,  to  court  only  repose,  to  distrust  his  adequacy, 
and  to  restore  to  the  senate  its  ancient  privileges.  Though  every  mem- 
ber of  that  body  perfectly  understood  the  insincerity  of  these  profes- 
sions, they  were  obliged  to  dissemble  their  knowledge,  and  with  the 
most  degrading  importunity  implore  their  master  to  seize  that  which 
he  already  held  fast,  and  to  hold  fast  that  which  he  had  no  inclination 
to  resign. 

His  stern  justice  was  often  provoked  by  the  open  insolence  and  se- 
cret practices  of  his  enemies.  The  adulation  of  many,  the  blind  trea- 
son of  some,  at  once  made  him  despise  and  hate  mankind.  The  farther 
he  was  provoked  to  oppression  or  anger,  the  more  dangerous  it  seemed 
to  resign  his  authority.  A  want  of  sincerity  and  fixed  principle,  the 
force  of  precept  and  example,  of  fortune  and  accident,  and  the  well- 
merited  contempt  of  mankind,  drove  him  to  the  commission  of  those 
acts  that  have  the  character  of  deep  crime  and  enormity. 

CALIGULA.  Caligula,  or  Caius,  the  unworthy  son  of  the  noble  Ger- 
A.D. 3?>  manicus  and  the  elder  Agrippina,  a  profligate,  aban- 
doned youth,  was  chosen,  chiefly  for  his  congenial  views,  by  Tibe- 
rius, for  his  successor.  The  commencement  of  his  reign  was  distin- 
guished by  acts  of  the  tenderest  regard  to  his  people,  whose  lives, 
liberty,  and  prosperity  were  respected  as  sacred.  The  Roman  world 
enjoyed  this  delicious  repose  for  eight  months;  when  all  the  horrors 
of  the  preceding  reign  were  renewed,  and  a  career  of  wanton  cruelty, 
crime,  folly,  and  indecency  commenced.  Not  satisfied  with  sporting 
with  the  living,  he  assailed  the  statues  and  memory  of  the  dead,  and 
replaced  the  heads  of  the  gods  with  his  own.  His  profane  mockery 
erected  temples  and  ordered  priests  to  himself,  human  victims  were 
devoured  by  wild  beasts  in  his  palace;  incest  and  lewdness,  theft  and 
murder,  received  his  special  patronage  and  countenance.  To  his  horse 
Incitatus  a  palace  was  erected  and  domestics  assigned ;  a  marble  stable 
and  ivory  rack,  gilt  barley,  and  wine,  from  a  golden  cup.  He  fell,  at 
last,  by  the  hand  of  an  assassin. 

CLAUDIUS.        Claudius  succeeded  his  nephew,  Caligula,  by  appoint- 

A.D.41.       ment  of  the  pretorians,  and  pursued  a  mild  and  popular 

course,  till,  through  the  influence  of  his  wanton  and  profligate  relative 

Messalina,  whom  he  had  married,  he  became  like  his  predecessors,  an 

inhuman  and  bloody  tyrant.     Being  of  a  feeble  and  stupid  mind,  h* 


104  OUTLINE     OF     HISTORY. 

abandoned  the  government  to  vile  and  flagitious  favourites ;  whose 
licentiousness  and  rapacity  plundered  the  state,  and  set  the  nation  in 
commotion.  His  four  wives  disgraced  the  imperial  name  ;  the  noto- 
rious Messalina  had  converted  the  palace,  and  even  the  city,  into  an 
imperial  brothel :  and  when  he  had  reluctantly  punished  her  as  her 
lust  and  debauchery  deserved,  he  espoused  his  celebrated  niece,  Agrip- 
pina,  widow  of  Domitius,  and  by  him  mother  of  Nero.  Her  criminal 
ambition,  not  satisfied  with  controlling  the  administration  of  her  impe- 
rial consort,  caused  him  to  be  poisoned,  that  her  son  Nero  might  sup- 
plant Britannicus,  son  of  Claudius,  and  lawful  heir  to  the  throne.  The 
reign  of  Claudius  was  signalized  by  the  conquest  of  Britain ;  which 
was  achieved  entirely  by  his  generals,  and  was  not  completed  and  con- 
firmed till  the  time  of  Domitian. 

NERO.  Nero,  son  of  Domitius  and  the  younger  Agrippina,  the 
A.  D.  54.  descendant  of  Antony  and  Octavia.  He  was  the  last  of  the 
real  Ctesars ;  a  vile  profligate,  a  flagrant  criminal,  an  avowed  parri- 
cide, a  monster,  blending  the  extremes  of  atrocity  with  the  utmost  ex- 
cesses of  the  trifling  and  the  ridiculous.  The  example  of  four  preced- 
ing reigns  taught  or  suggested  the  dissembling  virtues  with  which  he 
began  his.  But  the  age  must  have  been  blind  or  stupified,  if  the  son 
of  Domitius  or  Agrippina,  educated  in  the  maxims  of  imperial  depra- 
vity, and  under  the  pupilage  of  his  flagitious  mother,  could  impose 
upon  them  by  the  constrained  and  artificial  virtues  of  an  opening  ad- 
ministration. Not  indignant  virtue,  nor  even  impatient  censure,  could 
deny  this  paragon  of  crime  and  folly  the  merit  of  considerable  talent 
and  taste.  That  he  was  the  author  of  the  conflagration  of  Rome  is  a 
clumsy  and  palpable  calumny ;  and  it  is  highly  probable  that  his  real 
outrages  have  suggested  and  given  currency  to  many  that  are  fictitious. 
A  lover  of  truth  will  reject  a  fiction,  even  when  it  favours  his  pre- 
judices. Nero  ordered  his  mother  to  be  drowned,  on  a  pretended  ex- 
cursion of  pleasure ;  and  when  accident  defeated  his  intentions,  he 
boldly  despatched  the  assassins  to  her  palace ;  and  without  discovering 
the  bloody  deed,  he  sent  a  letter  to  the  senate,  justifying  the  murder  to 
that  body  and  to  the  world. 

A  prostrate  king  of  Armenia  might  see  the  lordly  potentate,  who 
raised  him  from  the  dust,  seeking  immortal  glory  in  the  circus,  amphi- 
theatre, or  orchestra,  contending  for  the  prize  in  the  chariot  race  or 
hunt ;  or  distorting  his  imperial  visage,  or  straining  his  imperial  throat, 
or  trying  his  imperial  lungs,  to  win  the  prize.  In  nocturnal  riots,  in 
buffoonery,  revelling,  and  carnivals,  his  superior  was  unknown;  and 
though  many  could  excel  him  in  wrestling  and  music,  there  was  no 
man  audacious  enough  to  claim  or  award  the  prize  of  victory  against 
him. 

GALBA.  This  emperor  had  risen  through  every  grade  of  inferior 
A.D.  68.  office  by  his  great  merit;  and  after  enjoying  the  smiles  of 
several  emperors,  he  was  high  in  command  under  Nero,  when  the 
enormities  of  that  emperor  shocked  all  mankind,  drove  Vindex  into 
rebellion  in  Gaul,  (afterwards  conquered  by  Virginius,)  and  Gal- 
lia  himself,  in  Spain.  When  the  Roman  senate  heard  of  these 


ROMAN     EMPERORS. 

events  they  took  courage,  condemned  Nero,  and  acknowledged  Galba, 
whose  army  had  already  proclaimed  their  aged  general.  Rome  and 
the  world  submitted  to  Galba,  and  the  flying  Nero  was  pursued,  over- 
taken, and  despatched. 

The  virtues  of  Galba  did  not  qualify  him  for  his  imperial  elevation ; 
his  conduct  was  feeble,  and  fluctuated  between  opposite  extremes  of 
parsimony  and  prodigality,  of  levity  and  cruelty.  His  bounty  to  the 
soldiers  fell  far  short  of  their  expectations.  Otho,  once  his  advocate, 
but  now  recently  disappointed  in  not  being  adopted  for  his  successor, 
soon  seduced  the  allegiance  of  the  guards,  who  being  instigated  by  him, 
rushed  upon  their  defenceless  emperor,  and  despatched  him,  after  a 
reign  of  eight  months. 

OTHO.         Fraud  and  murder  brought  this  emperor  to  the  throne. 

A.D.  69.  jjjs  former  days,  under  Nero,  were  marked  by  dissipation 
and  debauchery,  and  criminal  participation  in  the  course  of  that  em- 
peror. His  elevation  only  served  to  exhibit  more  conspicuously  the 
errors  that  stained  his  private  character  and  attended  him  on  the  throne. 
His  short  career  offered  but  few  materials  for  history,  unless  we  should 
detail  his  military  operations,  and  three  battles  with  his  competitor 
Vitellius.  He  sunk  under  the  superior  fortune  of  his  rival,  and  died 
the  Roman  death.  His  gaieties,  gallantries,  voluptuous  life,  and  phi- 
losophic death,  form  his  chief  characteristics. 

VITELLIUS.  He  was  a  general  in  Germany,  proclaimed  by  his  own 
A.D.  70.  troops  before  the  news  of  Otho's  elevation.  The  strug- 
gle was  doubtful,  and  it  was  his  fortune,  not  his  superiority,  that  pre- 
vailed in  the  last  battle,  after  several  defeats.  His  criminal  compli- 
ance with  the  odious  vices  of  the  emperors,  and  the  grovelling  and 
congenial  propensities  of  his  father  and  whole  family,  had  secured  to 
him  the  good  graces  of  several  emperors  in  succession.  His  gluttony, 
his  unbounded  extravagance,  debauchery,  and  devotion  to  pleasure, 
might  never  have  been  celebrated  in  history,  had  he  risen  no  higher 
than  to  the  rank  of  general.  His  cruelties  and  extortion,  after  his  ac- 
cession, provoked  the  horror  and  detestation  of  the  world,  and  pro- 
moted the  glory  of  the  Flavian  or  Vespasian  house,  which  is  just 
rising  like  a  star  in  the  east,  but  which,  under  a  Trajan  or  an  Anto- 
nine,  could  never  have  risen  much  above  the  horizon. 

The  contest  between  Vitellius  and  Vespasian  has  been  admirably 
delineated  by  Tacitus.  The  blows  and  torture  inflicted  on  the  pros- 
trate Vitellius,  by  an  infuriated  populace,  as  much  attest  the  savnge 
manners  of  the  age  as  the  odious  vices  of  the  victim. 

VESPASIAN.  The  birth  of  Vespasian  was  mean :  his  grandfather 
A.D.  TO.  was  a  private  soldier,  and  his  father  a  petty  officer  of 
the  revenue.  His  own  merit  raised  him  through  every  grade  of  mili- 
tary government,  and  placed  him  in  a  commanding  and  conspicuous 
attitude  in  the  East,  when  the  beastly  Vitellius  was  glutting  his  enor- 
mous appetite  and  indulging  his  brutal  passions  at  the  expense  of  a 
plundered  and  oppressed  people.  The  indignation  of  men  against 
the  imperial  glutton  had  as  much  influence  as  the  merit  of  Vespasian 

14 


106  OUTLINE     OP     HISTORY. 

in  elevating  the  latter  to  the  throne.  The  nomination  of  Vespasian 
proceeded  from  his  own  partial  army,  'flushed  with  recent  victory,  in 
the  full  tide  of  glory,  and  panting  for  the  ease  and  honours  of  the  capi- 
tal. His  success  depended  on  the  fate  of  his  arms.  His  generals  led 
the  army  to  Rome,  and  overcame  the  forces  of  his  rival ;  whose  ser- 
vants, generals,  fleets,  and  armies  betrayed  him,  and  whose  deformities 
of  mind  were  enough  to  turn  the  universe  against  him. 

The  success  of  Vespasian  was  not  splendid,  but  his  elevation  was 
marked  with  dignity ;  his  military  career  had  been  highly  reputable, 
and  through  life,  by  his  personal  behaviour  in  the  East,  he  ably  fulfilled 
the  public  expectations.  The  glories  of  his  house  were  amply  illus- 
trated by  the  imperial  honour,  the  brilliant  character,  and  achieve- 
ments of  his  son  Titus.  Though  it  has  been  remarked,  that  his  merit 
was  rather  useful  than  shining,  yet  his  wisdom  and  dignity,  his  scru- 
pulous and  profound  attention  to  the  welfare  of  his  people,  the  success 
of  his  administration,  his  embellishments  and  improvements  of  the 
capital  and  country,  and  his  worthy  son,  impart  a  lustre  to  his  name, 
in  spite  of  the  doubtful  charge  of  "a  strict  and  sordid  economy"  in  his 
fiscal  concerns.  The  example  and  magnanimity  of  the  father  reclaim- 
ed the  profligate  son  from  the  excesses  of  indulgence  and  debauchery. 

TITUS.  The  youth  of  Titus  threatened  a  terrific  reign;  but  there 
A.D. 79.  was  yet  a  redeeming  principle;  and  when  the  indulgent 
but  exemplary  father  reposed  confidence  it  was  not  betrayed  ;  and  the 
splendid  and  more  amiable  character  of  Titus,  when  associated  with 
his  father  in  power,  served  to  turn  the  public  attention  from  the  ob- 
scure origin  to  the  future  glory  of  the  Flavian  family. 

Titus  was  adored  by  the  Eastern  legions,  which,  under  his  command, 
had  just  achieved  the  conquest  of  Judea.  Though  his  virtues  were 
clouded  by  the  intemperance  of  youth,  and  his  designs  were  suspected, 
yet,  instead  of  listening  to  unworthy  suspicions,  the  sagacious  and 
anxious  father  associated  his  son  in  the  full  power  of  his  imperial  dig- 
nity; and  the  grateful  son  justified  the  confidence.  Under  the  mild 
administration  of  Titus  the  world  enjoyed  a  transient  felicity ;  and  his 
beloved  memory  served  to  screen,  above  fifteen  years,  the  hideous 
vices  of  his  brother  Domitian. 

DOMITIAN.  In  the  character  of  Domitian  there  is  nothing  equi- 
A.D.  si  vocal,  nothing  misunderstood.  His  passions  were  too 
predominant  to  be  concealed  by  art.  Selfish,  impetuous,  lustful,  and 
impatient,  it  was  dangerous  to  check  or  thwart  his  propensities.  En- 
vious, jealous,  timid,  cowardly,  the  merit  of  his  servants  planted  thorns 
in  his  breast.  Implacable  as  impetuous,  he  often  retired  by  himself 
to  brood  over  bis  causes  of  discontent ;  and  his  solitude  was  a  prelude 
to  new  atrocities.  Prone,  by  nature,  to  sudden  fits  of  rage,  if  at  any 
time  he  had  the  patience  or  policy  to  disguise  his  anger,  it  was  only 
smothered,  to  break  out  with  fiercer  rage.  He  felt  the  terror  he  in- 
spired, and  his  jealous  fears  often  urged  him  on  in  his  tragic  career. 
His  face  and  eyes  flamed  with  anger  and  rage.  Authors  represent 
him  by  the  figure  of  a  raging  tempest,  sweeping  the  country  with  de- 
solation. Not  content,  like  his  tyrannical  predecessors,  with  a  single 


ROMAN      EMPERORS.  107 

victim  at  a  time,  he  sent  crowds  at  once  to  the  slaughter.  He  would 
often  mock  the  people,  and  even  senators,  with  threats,  and  then  dis- 
miss them  for  his  amusement. 

Pliny  has  given  a  striking  picture  of  Domitian  in  his  solitary  re- 
treats. That  savage  beast  shut  himself  up,  as  it  were,  in  a  den,  where 
he  quaffed  the  blood  of  his  relations ;  and  when  he  came  forth,  it  was 
to  riot  in  the  destruction  of  the  best  and  most  illustrious  citizens.  Dis- 
may and  terror  obstructed  his  door,  and  they  who  were  excluded  were 
as  much  in  danger  as  those  who  had  gained  admittance. 

The  tyrant  was  horrible  to  the  sight :  pride  in  his  aspect,  anger  in 
his  eye,  a  feminine  whiteness  over  his  whole  body;  in  his  countenance 
an  air  of  vengeance.  No  man  dared  approach  him,  none  could  speak 
to  him — he  remained  in  darkness,  brooding  mischief,  and  never  came 
forth  from  his  solitude,  but  to  make  worse  solitude,  by  the  destruction 
of  eminent  men. 

NERVA.  Nerva,  the  first  of  the  five  good  emperors,  ascended  the 
A.D.  96.  throne.  He  was  old  and  infirm,  and  associated  with  him 
Trajan,  who,  like  his  predecessor,  was  a  virtuous  prince.  Adrian 
was  next  adopted.  He  visited  the  different  parts  of  the  empire,  reform- 
ed abuses,  and  made  many  improvements.  He  was  succeeded  by  Anto- 
ninus Pius,  and  he  by  Marcus  Aurelius  Antoninus,  who  was  the  most 
perfect  model  of  Pagan  virtue. 

COMMODTTS.         Commodus,  his  horrid  son,  succeeded.    He  renewed 
A.D.  180.       aji  tne  cruelties  and  massacres  of  the  reign  of  Domitian. 

PBRTINAX.  Pertinax  was  chosen  by  the  Pretorian  guards;  and 
A.D.  192.  after  reigning  eighty-seven  days,  was  put  to  death  by 
the  same  hands  that  placed  him  on  the  throne.  The  empire  was  then 
put  up  at  auction,  and  sold  to  Julius  Didius,  the  highest  bidder. 

211.  Severus  was  then  chosen  by  his  army  on  the  Danube,  Niger 
in  Syria,  and  Albinus  in  Britain.  After  the  death  of  Severus  his  two 
sons,  Caracalla  and  Geta,  came  to  Rome  and  succeeded  their  father ; 
but  it  was  with  such  feelings  of  enmity,  that  they  never  spoke  during 
the  voyage :  and  after  their  arrival,  the  imperial  palace  was  divided 
between  them,  and  its  passages  of  entrance  strictly  guarded. 

218.  Macrinus  was  an  African  by  birth,  and  the  astrologers  had 
foretold  his  future  greatness.  Word  was  sent  to  Caracalla  that  he  was 
in  danger  from  Macrinus ;  but  Macrinus  being  prime  minister,  first 
read  the  letters,  kept  them,  pnt  his  master  to  death,  and  then  fulfilled 
the  prophecy.  He  reigned  but  a  short  time,  and  was  succeeded  by 

Heliogabalus,  a  boy  of  but  fourteen.  At  this  early  age  he  showed 
himself  a  monster  of  profligacy  and  cruelty  ;  and  though  he  reigned 
but  four  years,  yet,  in  this  short  time,  he  exhausted  all  his  resources. 
He  married  and  divorced  six  wives. 

222.  Alexander  Severus  was  a  mild  and  amiable  prince.  Young  as 
he  was,  he  undertook,  and  rendered  successful,  an  expedition  against 
Parthia.  A  mutiny  was  raised  by  Maximus,  who  asserted  that  the 
emperor  was  a  feeble  and  unambitious  prince,  unfit  to  govern  a  great 
empire ;  so  he  was  put  to  death  in  his  camp,  and  Maximus,  who  was 
descended  from  some  straggling  Goths,  succeeded.  This  caused  mu- 


108  OUTLINE      OP      HISTORY. 

tiny  and  rebellion  in  many  parts  of  the  empire.  The  two  Gordians 
were  appointed,  but  in  sixty  days  they  were  both  dead.  The  youngest 
was  killed  in  attempting  to  defend  himself  against  one  of  Maximus' 
creatures  at  Carthage,  and  the  other  killed  himself  in  despair. 

Maximus  and  Balbinus  were  next  appointed ;  and  on  reaching  Rome 
the  senate  wished  to  unite  Gordian  3rd,  a  boy  of  twelve  years  of  age, 
as  their  colleague.  Maximus  and  Balbinus  were  assassinated,  and 
the  dominion  left  to  Gordian,  who  proved  a  good  and  worthy  prince. 

Philip,  an  Arabian  by  birth,  put  Gordian  to  death,  and  succeeded. 
During  his  reign  the  Goths  invaded  Asia  Minor,  and,  entering  Greece, 
desolated  and  laid  waste  the  country.  Philip  nominated  Decius  to  go 
against  the  Goths,  and  sent  him  to  Moesia  and  Thrace.  After  two 
years  successful  movement  against  them,  he  was  unfortunately  killed, 
in  the  confusion  of  battle,  in  a  morass. 

Gallus,  instead  of  pursuing,  against  the  Goths,  the  course  marked 
out  by  Decius,  hired  them  to  leave  the  empire.  This  put  him  out  of 
favour;  and  Velerian,  after  defeating  him  in  battle,  was  appointed  his 
successor.  He  made  an  unsuccessful  expedition  against  the  Parthians. 
The  Goths,  enabled  by  the  money  paid  them,  again  renewed  their  at- 
tacks, defeated  the  Romans,  and  took  their  emperor  prisoner. 

Gallienus,  his  son  and  successor,  was  a  man  of  talents,  but  he  did 
nothing  towards  suppressing  the  Goths.  He  associated  with  him 
Odenatus,  who  was  styled  colleague  of  Gallienus  and  emperor  of  the 
East.  He  was  assassinated,  and  Zenobia,  his  queen,  succeeded  him. 

Zenobia  resisted  Gallienus  and  Claudius  his  successor,  who  might 
have  subdued  her  had  he  reigned  longer.  He  reigned  but  two  years, 
and  was  succeeded  by  Aurelian;  who  attacked  her  in  Palmyra,  her 
capital,  and  obliged  her  to  surrender  it.  He  left  her  mistress  of  the 
city,  but  limited  her  authority  to  that  and  returned  home.  On  arriv- 
ing at  the  Bosphorus  he  heard  that  Zenobia  was  queen  of  the  East, 
with  Palmyra  for  her  capital,  and  Egypt  and  Syria  as  part  of  her  do- 
minions. With  great  indignation  he  returned,  again  besieged  Palmy- 
ra, took  it,  and  carried  the  queen  to  grace  his  triumph  at  Rome.  After 
this  he  dismissed  her  honourably,  with  palaces  and  villas  for  her  ha- 
bitation, and  her  children  were  among  the  first  nobility  in  Italy. 

275.  Aurelian  was  killed,  and  the  government  was,  for  eight  months, 
under  ministers,  until  Tacitus  was  elected.  He  reigned  but  eight 
months,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  brother  Florian,  and  he  by  Probus, 
a  great  emperor,  and  a  favourite  with  the  senate. 

Cams,  a  rustic,  marched  against  the  Parthians  and  was  killed  by 
lightning  in  his  own  camp,  and  Numerian  and  Carinus  succeeded. 

Numerian  was  poisoned  and  Carinus  made  peace  with  the  Parthi- 
ans. He  was  a  mere  buffoon  ;  prided  himself  more  on  his  knowledge 
of  cookery  than  his  sagacity  in  political  affairs. 

284.  Diocletian  introduces  a  new  system,  that  of  imperial  colleagues, 
designed  to  repel  the  barbarians  and  recover  the  provinces  that  had 
been  wrested  from  the  empire.  Diocletian  and  Maximian  were  styled 
Augustus,  and  each  had  an  assistant  of  equal  power,  but  with  the  infe- 
rior title  of  Caesar.  Diocletian  resided  at  Nicomedia,  Maximian  at 
Milan,  Galerius  on  the  banks  of  the  Danube,  and  Constantius  Chlorus 
in  such  parts  of  Gaul  or  Britain  as  required  his  presence.  Diocletian 


ROMAN      EMPERORS.  109 

was  the  only  great  man  among  them ;  Constantius  Chlorus  was  a  good 
man,  but  Maximian  and  Galeriuswere  both  unprincipled  and  savage. 
As  long  as  Diocletian  reigned  he  kept  the  empire  in  perfect  order, 
and  displayed  talents  in  every  department  of  government,  in  his  ascen- 
dancy over  the  minds  of  men,  and  in  his  selection  of  officers,  which 
have  caused  him  to  be  not  inaptly  compared  to  Augustus. 

304  After  a  joint  reign  of  twenty  years,  he  and  Maximian  re- 
Abdication.  signe(J.  Galerius  took  the  title  of  Augustus,  and  chose  two 
Caesars  in  the  East,  viz.  Maximinus  and  Licinius ;  and  obliged  Con- 
stantius, the  other  Augustus,  to  accept  Severus  as  his  Caesar. 

In  less  than  a  year  after  the  abdication  Maximian  reappeared,  with 
his  son  Maxentius,  overcame  Severus,  and  took  his  place.  Constan- 
tino succeeded  his  father  Constantius ;  and  Galerius  dying  soon  after, 
he  was  left  to  sweep  from  the  stage  Maximian,  Maxentius,  Maximin, 
and  Licinius.  Maximian  fled  from  his  own  son  to  Constantine,  who 
had  married  his  daughter ;  but  afterwards  endeavoured  to  supplant 
him,  and  was  murdered  in  consequence. 

In  312  Constantine  invaded  Italy,  and  'gained  three  great  battles 
over  Maxentius,  who,  after  suffering  a  complete  route  in  the  last,  was 
drowned  in  crossing  the  Tiber.  On  the  destruction  of  Maxentius, 
Constantine  united  with  Licinius,  and  left  him  to  destroy  Maximin 
whilst  he  opposed  the  Franks.  A  quarrel  ensued  between  the  two 
victors,  in  which  Licinius  was  worsted,  though  he  still  reigned  eight 
_,  .  .  years  in  Thrace,  Asia,  and  Egypt.  In  another  civil  war 

Empire  united  J  .    .    .  ,  f  &jr 

under  Con-   Licinius  is  removed  from  the  scene,  and  Constantine  stands 
stantme.      before  us  the  sole  monarch  of  a  united  empire. 
The  life  of  Constantine  may  be  divided  thus: — 1st.  His  civil  wars; 
2d,  The  building  of  New  Rome,  or  Constantinople,  which  occupied 
nearly  all  the  rest  of  his  reign  ;  3d,  The  legal  adoption  of  Christianity, 
which  ended  persecution  by  the  heathen ;  but  led  to  persecution  of 
them,  and  to  persecutions  among  the  Christians  themselves.     Constan- 
tinople became  the  residence  of  the  Eastern  emperors  for  eleven  hun- 
dred years. 

Constantine.      Constantine,  at  his  death,  divided  the  empire  between  his 
Death  of   three  sons  ;  Constantius  in  the  East,  Constans  in  the  Middle, 
and  Constantine  in  the  West.     Constans  soon  met  and  defeated  Con- 
stantine in  battle,  thus  adding  the  West  to  his  portion.     He  was  dis- 
_„«       placed  in  350  by  Magnentius,  a  usurper ;  whom  Constantius 
*„„,,„- immediately  pursued  and  slew,  and  thus  became  sole  empe- 

L/onBianiius  T      i       i     i  i  i  •  /•     i  i          i  •  * 

Augustus,  ror.  It  had  been  the  policy  of  these  brothers  to  rid  them- 
selves of  all  their  relations ;  two  only  had  been  spared,  their 
Julian  Caaar.cousjnS)  Julian  and  Gallus ;  and  Constantius  now  feeling  the 
want  of  a  colleague,  raised  Julian  to  the  rank  of  Caasar,  and  gave  him 
command  of  the  armies  in  Gaul.  The  new  Caesar  remained  faithful 
until  he  had  settled  the  Gallic  frontier ;  but  when  Constantius  then 
demanded  his  troops  for  the  Persian  service,  they  mutinied,  and  gave 
Julian  the  choice  of  "the  purple  or  death."  Deciding  upon  the  former, 
he  immediately,  pursued  his  cousin,  wishing  to  meet  him  at  Constanti- 

Constantius  nople  J  but  the  death  of  Constantius  at  this  time  gave  him 
dies,  peaceable  possession  of  the  throne. 


110  OUTLINE     OP     HISTORY. 

361  Julian's  first  act  was  to  decree  the  restoration  of  the  Pagan 

Julian  reigns  Worship;  he,  however,  professed  entire  toleration.     After  a 

alone.        ,  r.'        .'         ,  .   ,    .  *  r  .  .          ,,          .  , 

short  rejgn,  in  which  he  proved  himself  a  wise  and  very  ac- 
tive  prince,    he  was   killed   in  an  expedition  against  the  Persians. 
jovia»          Jovian  then  filled  the  throne  for  a  few  months.     Christi- 
anity was  restored,  and  Paganism  sunk  for  ever. 
363  The  voice  of  the  nation  next  named  Valentinian  their  ru- 

*er>     ^e  bestowed  the  East,  with  the  title  of  Augustus,  upon 
his  brother  Valens. 
The  empire  of  the  West,  at  this  time,  was  subject  to  constant  incur- 
sions from  the  barbarians,  whom  Valentinian  successfully  opposed  in 
many  battles.    He  died  in  an  expedition  against  the  Quadi,  375.  Wars 
with  Persia,  Britain,  and  Africa  also  distracted  the  empire.     Gratian 
Theodosius  an^  Valentinian  2d  succeeded  in  the  West ;  and  the  death 
the  Great,  of  the  inefficient  Valens  soon  left  the  East  in  the  hands  of  The- 
odosius, surnamed  the  Great. 

Revolt  in  Maximus  revolted  in  Britain,  invaded  Gaul,  caused  Gra- 
Britam.  jjan  JQ  ^e  siajn)  an(]  compelled  Theodosius  to  accept  him  for 
a  colleague.  But,  not  contented  with  his  good  fortune,  this  usurper 
soon  after  attacked  Valentinian  2d  in  Italy,  and  drove  him  from  his 
dominions.  This  latter  sought  the  protection  of  Theodosius,  who  de- 
feated Maximus,  put  him  to  death,  and  restored  the  throne  to  his  col- 
league Valentinian,  its  rightful  owner.  By  the  death  of  Valentinian, 
Theodosius  was,  soon  after,  left  sole  emperor.  After  a  reign  of  six- 
395  teen  years  he  died,  leaving  the  empire  divided  between  his 
Final  division  two  sons ;  Arcadius  in  the  East,  (Constantinople,)  and  Ho- 
of the  empire.  norjus  jn  the  West,  (Milan.)  The  Eastern  retained  the 
name  of  Roman  empire.  It  was  called  Greek,  Lower,  Byzantine, 
and  Eastern  Roman  Empire.  The  Western,  called  Latin  Roman 
Empire,  crumbled  to  pieces,  and,  in  less  than  one  hundred  years,  was 
settled  by  barbarians. 

The  Latin       During  the  reign  of  the  trembling  Honorius  Italy  was 
empire.  jpour  years  jn  possession  of  the  Visigoths ;  Rome  was  sacked, 
410       after  being  three  times  besieged  by  the  mighty  Alaric,  and 
A  Rome!1    Ravenna  became  the  capital  of  the  ruined  empire. 
409          Africa  was  torn  from  the  empire  by  the  Vandals.  450, 
vandal*  in  Attila  invaded  Gaul  and  Italy  soon  after.     His  death,  in 
Africa.      45^  was  followed  by  the  dissolution  of  the  tremendous  em- 
pire of  the  Huns. 

455  Rome  was  sacked  by  the  Vandals  from  Africa ;  the  Visi- 

Gensericin  goths  became  possessed  of  a  large  part  of  Spain  and  of 

Rome.      Gaui;  an(ji  finally,  A.  D.  476,  Odoacer,  king  of  the  Heruli, 

took  the  title  of  King  of  Italy,  and  extinguished  the  Western  Roman 

Empire. 


MOVEMENTS     OP     TflE     BARBARIANS.          Ill 


Historical  Sketches  of  the  Movements  and  final  settle- 
ment of  the  Barbarians. 

Besides  being  distracted  by  internal  commotions,  and  broken  into 
fragments  by  usurpers,  the  frontier  provinces  of  the  Roman  empire  were 
continually  subject  to  incursions  from  the  northern  barbarians.  Before 
the  age  of  the  Antonines,  the  Goths  from  Scandinavia  were  established 
south  of  the  Baltic,  and  the  Vandals,  also  from  Scandinavia,  were 
spread  along  the  banks  of  the  Oder.  The  Goths  are  subdivided  into 
Ostrogoths,  Visigoths,  and  Gepidae;  the  Vandals  into  Herulians, 
Burgundians,  Lombards,  and  many  other  formidable  tribes.  By  the 
year  250  the  Franks  are  settled  in  Belgium,  the  Alemanni  in  Swabia, 
the  Visigoths  and  Ostrogoths  north  of  the  Black  Sea.  After  being 
Ostrogoths  en-  repeatedly  driven  from  Asia  Minor  and  Greece,  the  Ostro- 
tangied  with  goths,  or  eastern  Goths,  are  in  374  entangled  with  the  Huns, 
a  hideous  race  of  deformed  savages  from  Central  Asia. 

VISIGOTHS. 

374  The  Visigoths,  so  called  from  their  position  west  of  the  Os- 
visigoths  set-  trogoths  were  driven  by  the  same  wild  tribe  across  the  Dan- 
tie  in  Moesia  ube  into  Moesia  and  Thrace,  where,  on  promising;  to  be 

and  Thrace.  ,,  ...  ,.  ',  ,f  "        . 

peaceable,  obedient  subjects,  they  were  allowed  to  settle. 
But  their  wandering,  predatory  habits,  rendered  submission  almost 
impossible.  They  rebelled  against  Valens,  whose  imprudence 

in  admitting  them  into  the  empire  was  now  manifest,  and 

Adrianople.     .       .  i  *»••»•  11  ir         j         j    i    •          mi 

m  the  battle  of  Adrianople  he  was  defeated  and  slam.     Ihe 
energetic  valour  of  Theodosius  for  a  while  suppressed  them,  but  at 
his  death,  395,   they  chose  Alaric  for  their  leader;   and  marching 
with  rapine,  and  plunder,  and  devastation,  threatened  the  very  walls 
of  Constantinople.     They  entered  Greece,  and  pursued  their  course 
as  far  south  as  the  Peloponnesus,  where  they  were  met  and  driven 
back  by  the  victorious  Stilicho,  a  general  of  the  Western  empire.  No- 
thing  daunted  by  defeat,  they  prepared  to  march  into  Italy, 
where  they  met  with  greater  success.     In  the  year  400  the 
trembling  Honorius,  the  feeble  emperor  of  the  West,  deserted  his  capi- 
tal, and  fled  before  them  to  Ravenna.     Again  they  were  defeated  by 
Stilicho,  but  in  409,  re-entering  Italy,  they  twice  besieged  Rome. 
The  first  time  their  retreat  was  purchased;   but  receiving  af  rein- 
forcement of  300,000  men,  Alaric  again  pitched  his  camp  before  the 
imperial  city.     Being  reduced  to  the  most  distressing  ex- 
tremities by  pestilence  and  famine,  the  mighty  mistress  of 
the  world  opened  her  gates  to  the  barbarous  forces.     For 
seven  days  they  laid  waste  with  unsparing  hand  its  costly  edifices,  and 
revelled  among  its  riches  with  unrestrained  ferocity.     Leaving  Rome 
a  heap  of  desolate  ruins,  they  proceeded  south,  intending  to  pass  into 
Sicily  and  Africa,  but  the  death  of  Alaric  stopped  their  pro- 
Deathricf  Ala  gress-     *n  tne  bed  of  the  river  Vulturous,  (Gibbon  says 
Busentinus,)  enclosed  in  three  coffins,  they  left  the  remains 


112  OUTLINE     OP      HISTORT. 

of  their  chief,  and  choosing  Ataulphus  for  their  leader,  marched  to  the 
south  of  Gaul.  Here,  in  412,  in  the  province  of  Aquitania, 
tney  established  a  splendid  kingdom,  called  the  kingdom  of 
Toulouse,  which  lasted  100  years.  Driven  thence  by  the 

Finally  settle  Franks,  in  493,  they  finally  settled  in  Spain,  where  they  re- 
in Spain,  mained  until  "  Roderick  the  last  of  the  Goths"  was  conquer- 
ed by  the  Moors  in  712. 

SUEVI. 

The  brave  Suevi  are  first  found  filling  the  country  between  the  Oder 
and  the  Danube.  About  the  year  210  a  mixed  body  of  them  began  to 
move  southward,  and  taking  the  name  of  Alemanni,  penetrated,  in  the 
reign  of  Valerian  and  Gallienus,  as  far  as  Ravenna.  Gallienus  suc- 
ceeded in  dividing  their  forces,  and  in  enlisting  a  body  of  the  Heruli 
in  the  service  of  Rome.  In  269  they  came  down  upon  Moesia  and 
Thrace,  but  were  signally  defeated,  and  almost  exterminated  by  the 
emperor  Claudius.  They  afterwards  unite  with  the  Vandals  and 
Alans,  and  passing  through  Gaul,  in  409,  are  again  disunited,  and 
finally  settle  in  the  north-west  of  Spain. 

BURGUNDIANS. 

While  the  Visigoths  were  in  Italy,  409,  the  Burgundians,  a  tribe  of 
*ftf.  savages  from  the  southern  shores  of  the  Baltic,  had  establish- 

Settie  in  e(^  themselves  in  Switzerland  and  the  east  of  Gaul.  They 
Switzerland,  were  the  first  barbarians  who  established  laws,  and  being  con- 
verted' to  Christianity,  obtained  from  the  emperor  of  Constantinople 
the  right  to  govern  the  original  inhabitants.  Agriculture  and  the 

-04  care  of  their  flocks  was  their  peaceful  employment,  until 
Conquered  by  ^34,  when  they  were  conquered  by  Clovis  the  monarch  of 
the  Pranks,  the  Franks. 

SAXONS. 
Romans         Jn  the  year  429  Britain,  which  had  been  conquered  by 

abandon  Bri-  /-,,        ,.         i,  ,,.  n        ^i        /^.i     •_.•        "  J 

tain.        Claudius  Caesar,  fifty  years  after  the  Christian  era,   was 
abandoned  by  the  Romans,  and  for  twenty  years  left  a  prey 
to  the  incursions  of  the  Picts  and  Scots.     In  449  the  Saxons  of  Ger- 
many, coming  ostensibly  to  deliver  the  Britains  from  their 
enemies,  gradually  conquered  the  country,  and  at  the  end  of 
150  years  established  what  was  termed  the  Saxon  Heptar- 
Hepurchy.   chy,  or  seven  kingdoms.     The  natives  retired  into  Wales, 
and  under  king  Arthur  and  other  brave  leaders,  for  a  long 
time  annoyed  the  newly  founded  kingdom.     This  government  contin- 
ued until  828,  when  the  Heptarchy,  under  Egbert  the  Great, 
Monarchy.   ^  jng  Of  "WesseX)  was  reduced  to  a  monarchy. 

VANDALS. 

The  Vandals  from  Scandinavia,  the  Alans  from  the  country  west  pf 

the  Caspian  Sea,  and  the  Suevi,  the  bravest  of  all  the  German  tribes, 

united  in  Germany,  and  after  passing  through  Gaul,  crossed  the  Pyre- 

v   dais  in   nees«  an(*  'n  ^09  again  separated,  the  Alans   and  Suevi 

aspain.     settling  in  Portugal,  and  the  Vandals  in  the  south  of  Spain. 


SETTLEMENT     OP     THE     BARBARIANS.  113 

429       In  429,  invited  by  Count  Boniface,  the  Vandals,  under  Gen- 
In  Africa,    seric  their  king,  conquered  the  Roman  province  in  the  north 
of  Africa,  and  formed  a  settlement  there.     After  traversing 
the  coast  as  far  east  as  Carthage,  they  embarked  for  Sicily.     Invited 
.,,,       by  Eudoxia,  the  widow  of  Valentinian  3d,  to  avenge  the 
in  ita?y.     murder  of  her  husband,  in  455,  Genseric  passed  into  Italy  and 
laid  siege  to  Rome.     For  fourteen  days  he  abandoned  it  to 
Rome.  ke  pillaged  by  his  soldiers,  and  the  few  monuments  of  its  for- 
mer greatness  left  by  Alaric,  were  levelled  with  the  dust.     The  Van- 
dals remained  in  Africa  until  535,  when  Gelimer,  their  last 
king,  was  conquered  by  Belisarius,  and  led  in  triumph  to 
the  court  of  Justinian. 


HUNS. 

This  most  savage  of  barbarian  tribes  came  from  the  remote  deserts  of 
Central  Asia.     Their  first  grand  movement  is  in  375.     They  then 
cross  the  Volga,  enter  Europe,  and  routing  the  Goths  unite 
t^em  to  their  army.  and  pass  on  to  Hungary,  ravaging  with 
frightful  devastation  the  north  of  Greece.     Under  their  re- 
invade  Gaui.  nowned  king  Attila  they  invade  Gaul,  and  lay  siege  to  the 
city  of  Orleans.     Driven  from  thence  by  the  united  forces  of 
450       jEtius,   the  Roman  general,  and  Theodoric,  king  of  the 
BaUlionsCha"  Visigoths,  they  are  defeated  in  450,  with  the  loss  of  300,000 
men  at  Chalons.     They  next  enter  Italy,  where,  through 
the  terror  of  their  arms,  the  people  of  many  towns  submitted,  and  the 
remainder  fled  the  land,  and  on  seven  islands  in  the  sea  laid 
aurva  es  ^  foundation  of  the  city  of  Venice,  452.     The  retreat  of 
Attila  was  purchased  by  a  promise  of  receiving  the  princess 
Honoria,  the  sister  of  Valentinian  3d,  in  marriage,  and  with  her  an 
immense  dower.     He  returned  to  his  wooden  palace  beyond 
453       the  Danube,  and  died  of  apoplexy,  after  a  night  spent  in 
His  death,    feasting  and  revelry,  and  with  him  ends  the  great  Hunnish 
empire. 

HERULI,  OSTROGOTHS,  AND  LOMBARDS. 

476       The  Heruli,  a  people  of  Vandalic  origin,  and  settled  for  a 
Odontliki"g  while  west  of  the  sea  of  Asoph,  in  476,  under  Odoacer  their 
king,  conquer  Italy,  where  having  deposed  the  feeble  Au- 
gustulus,  Odoacer  assumes  the  title  of  king  of  Italy,  and  thus  termin- 
ates the  Western  Roman  Empire.     For  seventeen  years  these  barba- 
rians keep  possession  of  Italy,  until  493,  when  Theodoric,  king  of  the 
Ostrogoths,  (formerly  entangled  with  the  Huns,)  after  threat- 
493       ening  Constantinople,  conquers  Odoacer,  and  fixing  his  re- 
ro          ^ence  at  Ravenna,  in  his  turn  becomes  king  of  Italy.  Mean- 
time Belisarius,    the  victorious   general  of  Justinian,  had 
conquered  the  Vandals  of  Africa,  and  in  535  he  entered  Italy.    After 
great  prodigies  of  valour,  he  subdued  the  Ostrogoths,  and  Italy  in  the 
year  550  became  a  part  of  the  Eastern  Roman  Empire. 
550       Under  the  administration  of  Narses,  it  for  a  while  enjoyed 
Eastern  Em-  peace  and  prosperity  ;  but  Narses  falling  under  the  displea- 
sure of  the  emperor  Justin  2d,  betrayed  his  country  by  invit- 
15 


114  OUTLINE     OF     HISTORY. 

568  ing  Alboin  king  of  the  Lombards  to  the  invasion  of  Italy. 
Lombards.  jn  5QQt  leaving  Pannonia,  where  they  occupied  the  lands 
formerly  deserted  by  the  Ostrogoths,  the  Lombards  enter  Italy,  and 
without  plunder,  march  peacefully  and  in  good  order  through  the  coun- 
try. After  many  towns  had  opened  their  gates  to  them,  they  establish- 
ed their  capital  at  Pavia,  and  took  possession  of  the  north  and  middle 
of  Italy,  leaving  to  the  eastern  emperors  only  Ravenna  and  Ancona 
on  the  eastern  coast,  Rome  and  Naples  on  the  western  coast.  These 
towns  were  governed  by  exarchs,  and  this  relative  position  of  the  Lom- 
bards and  Eastern  emperors,  caused  continual  warfare,  until  774,  when 
Charlemagne  conquered  the  whole,  and  added  Italy  to  the  empire  of 
the  Franks. 

FRANKS. 

About  340,  A.D.,  the  name  of  Franks,  or  Freemen,  is  supposed  to 
have  originated  in  a  confederacy  of  some  barbarous  tribes  about  the 
Rhine  and  Weser,  and  in  twenty  years  they  pushed  their  conquests 
through  Gaul  and  Spain  and  passed  into  Africa. 

Again,  in  486,  an  association  of  these  people,  under  Clovis, 
ciovi!       entered  Gaul,  and  after  gaining  several  battles  over  the  Bur- 
gundians,  were  baptized  into  the  Christian  faith.     The  pos- 
5QQ       sessions  of  Alaric,  king  of  the  Visigoths,  were  next  attack- 
Gaul  changed  eQ"  with  equal  success,  and  before  the  year  500  the  whole 
to  France,    country  was  conquered. 


Historical  Sketch  of  the  Greek,  or  Eastern  Roman 
Empire,  from  Jl.  D.  441  to  the  time  of  Charle- 
magne.* 

441  In  the  reign  of  Theodosius  the  younger,  successor  of  Ar- 

Tempfre.k  cadius,  Attila  ravaged  the  east,  as  far  as  Constantinople. 

Passing  several  obscure  names  we  reach  the  family  of 

527  Justinian,  the  greatest  of  the  eastern  emperors.  He  sue- 
Justinian.  ceeded  his  uncle,  Justin  the  elder,  who  had  risen  from  the 
peasantry  to  the  throne.  The  reign  of  Justinian  is  rendered  famous 
by  his  Code  of  Laws,  and  by  the  success  of  his  generals,  Belisarius 
and  Narses.  Belisarius  wrested  Africa  from  the  Vandals,  subdued 
Sicily  and  a  great  part  of  Italy,  and  regained  Rome.  The  jealousy 
of  Justinian  recalled  him  to  Constantinople ;  and  his  conquests  rapidly 
fell  back  into  the  hands  of  Totila,  the  Ostrogoth.  He  was  again  sent, 
and  retook  Rome ;  but  his  progress  was  hindered  by  the  meanness  of 
his  master,  who,  finally  rewarded  his  faithful  services  by  ignominy,  a 
prison,  and  death.  Rome  remained  in  the  possession  of  the  Greek 
empire  until  568,  during  the  reign  of  Justin  2d,  when  a  great  part  of 
Italy  was  taken  by  the  Lombards. 

610     Heraclius,  the  first  of  his  family,  came  to  the  throne.     He  is 
famous  for  his  great  victories  over  the  Persians  in  many  campaigns. 

*  A  continuation  from  {he  History  of  the  Roman  Emperors. 


HISTORY     OP     GAUL.  115 

Mahomet  first  tried  his  sword  against  foreigners  in  an  invasion  of 
Syria  during  this  reign  ;  and  his  successors  stripped  the  old  monarch 
of  Syria,  Africa,  and  all  his  acquisitions  in  Persia. 

The  Heraclian  family  filled  the  throne  during  the  seventh  century 
and  were  followed  by  the  Isaurian ;  so  called  from  their  native  place' 
Isauria,  in  Asia  Minor.  They  were  Iconoclasts — image  breakers.  ' 

When  persecution  ceased  and  Christianity  triumphed,  its  professors 
fell  from  the  first  spirituality  of  their  faith,  and  looked  for  something 
of  corporeal  presence — that  the-eye  might  behold,  the  hands  touch — to 
call  their  wandering  minds  back  to  devotion.  Images  and  idolatry 
were  introduced.  A  pretended  likeness  of  our  Saviour,  painted  by  St. 
Luke,  long  concealed,  was  miraculously  discovered.  As  it  was  an 
undoubted  likeness,  and  painted  by  a  saint,  they  thought  there  could 
be  no  harm  in  adoring  it.  This  was  the  beginning  of  image  worship. 
Likenesses  of  the  Virgin  Mary  and  of  all  the  Apostles  were  found  in 
the  same  manner ;  and,  in  the  time  of  Leo  the  Isaurian,  all  the  East 
consented  to  worship  them. 

Leo  the  A  simple,  uncultivated  man,  of  strong  native  sense,  an 
iconoclast  isaurian  general  raised  himself  to  the  throne  of  Constanti- 
nople ;  ana  looking  upon  this  idolatry  with  disgust,  called  a  council, 
which  forbade  the  worship  of  images.  The  decree  was  carried  into 
effect  by  the  sword,  and  Constantinople  became  the  scene  of  civil  war. 
Images  were  destroyed  throughout  the  eastern  churches.  The  em- 
perors then  endeavoured  to  carry  the  edict  into  effect  in  their  domini- 
ons on  the  coasts  of  Italy.  Rome  and  Ravenna  revolted,  but  Naples 
and  the  south  submitted  to  the  command. 

The  fourth  of  the  Isaurian  family  is  reigning  when  we  take  leave  of 
them,  A.  D.  800. 


Continuation  of  the  History  of  Gaul,  to  the  time  of 
Charlemagne,  Jl.  D.  800. 

Gaul  always      Though  Gaul  generally  remained  submissive,  the  vigil- 
exposed  to  in-  »  I  r     j 

cursionsfromanceof  the  Roman  emperors  was  always  necessary  to  defend 


the  German  and  Batavian  frontiers.     Germany  beyond  the 

a*  •  1  • 

Rhine  was  often  penetrated  by  Roman  armies,  but  never  quite 
subdued.  Defeats  were  frequent  and  fatal,  victories  costly  and  fruit- 
less. Emperor  after  emperor  had  to  repeat  the  defensive  wars  of  his 
predecessor.  In  the  time  of  Augustus  even  the  Roman  arms  suffered 
the  most  shameful  disgraces,  and  mutiny  increased  these  horrors  in 
the  time  of  Tiberius.  In  the  time  of  Vespasian,  the  famous  Batavian 
Civilis  armed  and  inflamed  his  nation,  and  with  them  enlisted  the 
whole  German  nation  in  a  most  frightful  rebellion. 
Gaul  conquered  Gaul  often  stood  separate  from  the  Roman  empire  under 
bytneFranks.  usurpers.  Its  painful  recovery  by  the  emperors  aggravated 
the  miseries  of  the  world.  About  A.  D.  250,  we  find  the  savage 
Franks  and  Allemani  planted  along  the  Rhine  ;  from  which  time  the 
Roman  arms  were  perpetually  exercised  in  defending  Gaul  against 


116  OUTLINE      OP      HISTORY. 

their  dreadful  inroads.  At  last,  about  A.  D.  500,  the  Franks  having 
first  overcome  the  Allemani,  spread  themselves  over  Gaul,  to  which, 
from  them,  the  name  of  France  was  fixed,  instead  of  Gaul.  The  Bur- 
gundians  and  Visigoths,  who  had  previously  settled  in  Gaul,  were 
obliged  either  to  submit  to  the  Franks,  or  flee  into  other  countries,  as 
the  Visigoths  did  into  Spain. 

The  ciovingian  Clovis  was  a  politic  and  enterprising  prince,  and  estab- 
race, from ciovis,  Hshed  a  powerful  kingdom.  But  though  he  embraced  the 

commonly  called    ^i     •     •         /•  •  .->    *i_  u  ^.v.  •  /•  i  •          •/•      1-11    *•! 

the  Merovingian,  Christian  faith  through  the  persuasion  01  his  wife,  Olotil- 
hte^Mdfothe™  ^a,  an(*  ma(^e  ^s  Pagan  Franks  follow  his  example,  yet 
about  250  years,  neither  he  nor  his  people  ever  forgot  their  original  fe- 

from  aboufA.D.    _ 

500to750.'         rocity. 

After  the  death  of  Clovis,  the  custom  of  dividing  the 
French  monarchy  among  several  sons,  led  to  the  most  frightful  cruel- 
ties and  disorders.  The  final  and  total  degeneracy  of  the  whole  race 
threw  all  the  royal  power  into  the  hands  of  hereditary  ministers,  call- 
ed Mayors  of  the  palace.  Pepin  the  Elder,  Charles  Martel,  and  the 
second  or  younger  Pepin,  ruled  France  under  this  singular  title,  while 
the  slumbering  kings,  mere  phantoms  of  royalty,  only  retained  the 
mere  name. 

Cariovingian  or  Pepin  the  Second  reduced  the  last  Ciovingian  king  to  a 
Pepingian  kings,  monk,  and  united  the  title  of  king  to  the  power  which  he 
fromVsoto^ooo!  already  possessed,  750,  and  obtained  the  papal  sanction 
198?.]  t0  njg  usurpation. 

Frank  Western  Pepin,  and  after  him  his  son  Charlemagne,  (Charles 
Roman  Empire,  the  Great,)  grew  in  power,  and  triumphed  in  arms,  till, 
under  the  latter,  Lombardy,  (Italy,)  Germany,  and  part  of  Spain  re- 
ceived the  yoke  of  the  French.  After  thirty  cruel  and  bloody  cam- 
paigns, Charles  assumed  the  splendid  title  of  Charles  Augustus  Caesar, 
Emperor  of  the  West,  with  the  solemn  sanction  of  the  pope  at  Rome, 
A.  D.  800 ;  and  thus  we  have  a  French  Western  empire,  or  Western 
Roman  empire,  restored  by  Franks. 

But  this  splendid  fabric,  Ccotemporary  with  the  great  Saracen  em- 
pire,) was  dissolved  almost  as  soon  as  Charlemagne  died,  by  family 
discord  and  papal  intrigue.  The  imperial  title  was  perpetuated  in  the 
same  family  till  712,  when  it  passed  to  the  Germans ;  but  it  continu- 
ally shifted  from  one  branch  to  another,  and  from  one  country  to  ano- 
ther, till  it  finally  rested,  912,  on  the  imperial  Caesars  of  Germany, 
and  the  German  Cariovingian  branch  became  then  extinct.  In  France 
the  degenerate  Carlo vingians  continued  till  Hugh  Capet  deposed  the 
last  of  the  race,  987. 


RECAPITULATION.  117 


recapitulation  of  the  Roman  History,  from  A.D.  1, 
to  the  reign  of  Charlemagne,  Jl.D.  800. 


first,  most  natural,  and  most  imposing  reflection  is, 
'250  years  from' that  this  period  presents  the  origin,  propagation,  and  fiery 
A*DeKA?M.4oo4  ordeal  of  CHRISTIANITY.  A  universal  empire,  and  two  uni- 
A.u.c.756-to  versal  languages  facilitated  the  intercourse  of  men,  and 

A.D.  2oO,  when  .,  °  ..  °      f   ,  ,        TT  ,        /.         .    ,        r    , 

the  whole  impe-  the  propagation  of  the  gospel.     How  the  foresight  of  the 

"em  SSftS"  final  triumPh  of  such  a  religion,  325,  (see  next  period,) 

ments  by  usurpers  and  of  a  universal  Christian  monarchy  at  Rome,  (see  pe- 

ors-  riod  7,  papal  Rome,)  would  have  confounded  the  mind  of 

Augustus  Csesar ! 

What  a  field  for  an  imperial  master,  either  to  display  splendid  vir- 
tues or  perpetuate  enormous  crimes — in  an  immense  empire,  assimi- 
lated and  cemented  by  the  artful  policy  of  ages!  But  bad  men  gene- 
rally prevailed,  and  Rome,  excepting  a  few  illustrious  intervals,  gene- 
rally declined  in  virtue,  power,  and  unity,  till  it  was  even  prematurely 
dissolved  ;  for  it  required  enormous  violence  to  rend  asunder  parts  so 
firmly  woven  together.  The  idea  is  too  immense  to  find  place  even 
in  the  most  contemplative  mind.  Virtues  and  crimes,  disorders  and 
their  remedies — all  on  a  grand  scale  of  magnificence.  Whether  the 
emperor  was  a  patriot,  a  philosopher,  a  tyrant,  a  stage  actor,  or  a  buf- 
foon, he  performed  on  the  same  magnificent  stage.  The  same  impe- 
rial code,  the  same  spirit  of  despotism  pervading  the  whole  ;  it  formed 
one  immense  prison,  from  which  the  accused  or  oppressed  could  only 
escape  to  their  inevitable  fate  among  the  wild  savages  of  the  inhospita- 
ble deserts  around. 

In  this  age  the  edict  of  an  execrable  tyrant,  Caracalla,  extended  the 
bounds  of  the  Roman  city  (legally)  to  the  utmost  limits  of  the  empire. 
In  one  breath  the  most  remote  subjects  were  all  declared  Roman  citi- 
zens, with  all  the  privileges  of  native  citizens;  and  condemned  to  the 
same  vexatious  taxes,  tributes,  and  exactions.  The  mind  shrinks  at  the 
thought  of  such  a  world,  convulsed  within,  and  assailed  on  all  sides  by 
howling  savages  and  wild  barbarians.  But  such  is  the  appalling  pic- 
ture presented,  250,  at  the  end  of  this  gloomy  period ;  and  the  empire 
is  entirely  dissolved,  divided  among  competitors,  and  assailed  on  all 
sides. 

sth  Period.  Though  we  find  the  empire  in  confusion,  yet  the  idea 
imperial  Rome,  of  its  unity  was  still  sufficiently  pervading  to  encourage 
A^  250,' when  the  splendid  talents  and  efforts  of  Probus,  Claudius,  Aure- 
Romaniawas  ijan  Diocletian,  Constantine,  and  Theodosius,  in  their  re- 

prematurely  and  .          .  .  .      ..  ,  i.    j 

transiently  dis-  spective  times,  in  reducing  to  obedience  the  revolted  pro- 
Se'coinpS'rte'ofr-  vinces.     From  the  commencement  of  this  period  we  find 
cupation  of  the  the  Franks  and  Alemanni  already  seated  on  the  Rhine, 
tarbarians?811  and  the  Ostrogoths  and  Visigoths  on  the  North  of  the 
A.D.  500.      Black  Sea.     The  Huns  also  rushed  from  Asia  unto  Eu- 
rope, 374,  and  subdued  the  Ostrogoths,  and  chased  the  Visigoths  into 


118  OUTLINE     OF      HISTORY. 

Thrace.     All  these  new  savage  races  exercised  the  vigilance  of  the 

emperors,  and  helped  to  precipitate  the  downfall  of  the  empire. 

325  Triumphand      The  cruel  and  wanton  persecutions  of  this  age,  (those 

corruption  of  of  Decius,  Valerian,  Aurelian,  and  Diocletian,)  were  ar- 
inity-  rested,  325,  by  the  triumph  of  Constantine  the  Great  over 
all  colleagues  and  competitors,  which  proved  also  the  final  triumph  of 
Christianity  over  Paganism.  Constantine  unfortunately  not  only  gave 
the  Church  a  legal  existence,  hut  made  it  an  affair  of  the  state.  The 
wealth  and  power  he  conferred  on  the  Church  corrupted  Christianity, 
and  proved  a  greater  burthen  to  the  Church  than  all  the  Pagan  perse- 
cutions, which  had  tended  to  preserve  its  simplicity  and  purity.  Be- 
sides, the  moment  that  the  Pagan  persecutions  ceased,  Christians  di- 
vided into  innumerable  hostile  sects,  and  persecuted  one  another  with 
the  most  implacable  and  unrelenting  fury. 

Circumstances  tending  to  the  division  and  dissolution  of  the  empire  ; 
Milan,  capital  of  the  West ;  Constantinople,  or  New  Rome  ;  frequent 
divisions  among  colleagues  and  competitors.  The  new  organization 
of  the  empire  made  by  Diocletian,  placed  the  East  and  the  West  each 
under  the  immediate  charge  of  a  distinct  emperor,  (imperial  colleagues,) 
while,  at  the  same  time,  it  preserved  the  unity  of  the  whole,  by  a  uni- 
formity of  imperial  laws  and  edicts.  Without  the  ascendant  genius  of 
Diocletian,  the  frequent  repetition  of  the  same  division  afterwards,  weak- 
ened the  bond  of  union,  by  making  the  idea  of  division  familiar;  and 
it  even  awakened  ideas  of  separate  and  conflicting  interests.  The  con- 
venient removal  of  the  imperial  residence  from  Rome  to  Milan,  towards 
the  German  frontier,  soon  broke  the  charm  of  Roman  supremacy ;  and 
Constantinople,  (the  New  Rome,  and  rival  Rome  of  the  East,)  had  the 
same  tendency.  The  almost  continual  division  of  the  empire  among 
the  sons  and  successors  of  Constantine,  finally  resulted  in  a  complete 
and  permanent  division  into  East  and  West,  at  the  death  of  Theodosius 
the  Great,  A.  D.  395.  The  Eastern  Roman  Empire  was  called  also 
Greek,  Lower,  Byzantine  Empire,  or  Empire  of  Constantinople.  It 
lasted  till  1453. 

AD  409-500  ^e  dissolution  of  the  Western  Roman  Empire  begins 
at  once  after  this  division.  Ravenna  becomes  the  capital 
of  the  West,  instead  of  Milan.  This  division  of  the  empire,  between 
Honorius  and  Arcadius,  the  sons  of  Theodosius,  was  not  a  more  formal 
separation,  than  was  usual  between  two  colleagues.  But  the  East  and 
the  West  had  distinct  interests,  dangers,  and  calamities,  and  the  West 
began  at  once  to  yield,  piecemeal,  to  the  savage  Germans. 

The  Visigoths  who  had  been  driven  (374)  by  the  hide- 
Barbarian  setuc-  ous  and  deformed  Huns,  into  Moesia  and  Thrace,  began 
•fVom^oo^soa684  the  work  of  desolation  in  Greece  as  soon  as  Theodosius 
died,  395.  From  Greece  they  went  into  Italy  twice,  be- 
sieged and  sacked  Rome,  409,  and  were  persuaded,  412,  to  pass  into 
Gaul  and  establish  in  Aquitania  the  Visigothic  kingdom  of  Thoulouse. 
In  the  meantime,  the  trembling  Honorius  had  fled  before  Alaric,  the 
Visigothic  king,  when  he  first  entered  Italy  ;  and  changed  the  impe- 
rial residence  from  Milan  to  Ravenna,  which  long  continued  the  capi- 
tal of  Italy.  In  409,  just  before  the  Visigoths  settled  in  Aquitania,  the 
Vandals  passed  through  Gaul,  and  settled  in  the  south  of  Spain  ;  while 


RECAPITULATION.  119 

the  Burgundians,  the  same  year,  409,  crossed  the  Rhine  into  Helvetia 
and  the  east  of  Gaul.  In  429,  the  province  of  Africa  became  a  Van- 
dal kingdom.  In  449,  the  Saxons  began  to  conquer  Britain,  which 
the  emperor  had  abandoned  twenty  years  before  to  the  mercy  of  the 
Picts  and  Scots.  The  Saxons,  however,  did  not  complete  the  conquest 
of  England  till  600.  About  450,  the  terrible  Huns  scourged  Gaul  and 
Italy,  but  did  not  settle  in  any  province.  In  455,  Genseric,  the  Van- 
dal king  of  Africa,  sacked  Rome.  The  succession  of  western  empe- 
rors finally  ended  in  476,  when  Odoacer,  king  of  the  Heruli,  subdued 
Italy,  and  took  the  title  of  king  of  Italy  instead  of  emperor.  Though 
this  was  the  end  of  the  western  Roman '  empire,  there  was  still  a 
part  of  Gaul  that  was  Roman,  that  is,  was  not  yet  occupied  by  barba- 
rians ;  but  in  486,  Clovis,  king  of  the  Franks,  in  the  fifth  year  of 
his  reign,  conquered  Syagrius,  the  last  Roman  governor,  and  in  the 
course  of  about  twenty-five  years,  Gaul  became  the  kingdom  of  the 
Franks.  The  Visigoths  of  Aquatania  were  gradually  driven  into 
Spain,  which  became  a  Visigothic  monarchy  about  500 ;  and  the  Bur- 
gundians and  Alemanni  we  also  obliged  to  submit  to  the  Franks, 
In  the  mean  time,  the  Ostrogoths  entered  Italy,  493,  subdued  the 
Heruli,  and  swayed  the  country  till  535. 

About  435,  Ostrogothia,  or  the  Ostrogothic  kingdom  of 
6th  Period.      Italy,  was  assailed  by  the  arms  of  the  Eastern  emperor 

The  west  occu-  _      *.    .  P      J  i  r»   i  •        •  n         ** 

pied  by  barbari-  Justinian,  whose  famous  general  behsanus,  after  reduc- 
from  A/D.wcTto  ™g  the  Vandal  kingdom  of  Africa,  under  his  Eastern 
750,  when  Rome  master,  was  occupied  from  535  to  550  in  subduing  and 
Rome.68  apal  re-subduing  Italy  and  Sicily.  Thus  Italy  in  its  turn  be- 
came a  province  of  the  East,  and  Old  Rome  was  subjected 
to  New  Rome.  (Constantinople.) 

Italy  and  Africa  were  splendid  acquisitions  to  the  East, 

Exarchate  and    ,     ,       J  .,        ,      .,       ,.   T       -r .          _„_  ^v,       „  T         ,        , 

Lombardy.  but  on  the  death  of  Justinian,  568,  the  fierce  Lombards 
rushed  into  Italy,  conquered  the  north  and  central  re- 
gions, and  established  the  kingdom  of  Lombardy,  which  lasted  206 
years,  from  568  to  774.  The  emperors  of  Constantinople  still  retained 
both  coasts,  and  the  south,  including  on  one  side  Rome  and  Naples, 
and  on  the  other  Ravenna  and  Ancona.  These  possessions  were  gov- 
erned by  an  Eastern  governor,  called  exarch  of  Ravenna,  and  that  part 
of  Italy  that  belonged  to  the  East,  was  the  exarchate. 

The  division  of  Italy  between  the  Lombards  and  Greek 

i>i5nops  ot  ivornc,  j  *         •  _iirii 

(popes,)  and  pa-  emperors,  proved  most  unhappy,  and  the  feeble  emperors, 
*  'stMtinopief"  assailed  by  Persians  and  Saracens  on  the  east,  maintain- 


ioftheeast  ed  a  precarious  and  contested  authority  over  their  part  of 

'        .    ^s  ~    T*n  1  »r  •      on/1    frm    Tfit"/^/>i/MiQ    T  ,/MTrt  r\Q  t»A  o    *M»n*r«*rt    *•%»•»    nil    tli .»    •**-.nt 


schism  i 

war;    revouTf  Italy ;  and  the  ferocious  Lombards  preyed  on  all  the  rest. 


Ravenna,  Rome,  ^he  p0pe  an(j  patriarch  of  Constantinople  were  in  a  con- 

and  pope.  ,    r  _,    ,    .      .  .     ..  r. 

tmual  wrangle.  Safe  in  his  distant  province,  the  bishop  of 
Rome  assumed,  even  towards  his  Greek  emperor,  a  bold  and  lofty  style 
of  defiance,  and  the  pious  shepherd  insensibly  gained,  over  his  Roman 
flock,  the  influence  of  a  civil  magistrate.  As  successor  to  St.  Peter,  and 
bishop  of  the  ancient  metropolis,  he  claimed  the  character  of  universal 
bishop ;  his  address  (about  600)  had  brought  the  pagan  Saxons,  as  well 
as  the  Arian  Visigoths  and  Lombards,  into  the  bosom  of  the  Catholic 
church ;  the  ignorance  of  the  age,  and  the  alms  he  distributed  from 
his  immense  revenues,  favoured  his  pretensions. 


120  OUTLINE     OP     HISTORY. 

Finally  Ravenna,  Rome,  and  the  pope  revolted  from 
reroff  ^f*^6.  their  Greek  master,  who  (7ii8)  by  a  decree  against  images 
Uie°pope°a prince.'  and  image  worship,  had  kindled  a  furious  religious  war 
both  in  the  East  and  West.  The  images  of  course  won 
the  victory  in  such  an  age,  and  only  Naples  and  the  south  of  Italy  re- 
mained subject  to  the  East. 

7th  Period  After  the  revolt  of  Rome  and  Ravenna,  the  Lombard 
Papal  Rome,  750  king  improved  the  auspicious  moment,  seized  Ravenna, 
years^commenc-  an(j  Qnjy  Spare(j  Rorne  out  Of  respect  to  the  eloquence  and 
when  the  pope  be]  sacred  character  of  the  holy  pontiff.  But  when  Rome 

came  a  temporal  ,    ,  .         -i-    r    ,        ,  , 

prince,  and  end-  was  threatened  by  another  Lombard  prince  less  scrupu- 
thl  prot«jtanthre"  ^OUS)  ^e  sougnt  ^e  protection  of  his  pious  friend  Pepin, 
formation  arrest-  the  Frank.  Pepin  was  not  only  able  to  save,  but  willing 

ed  the  career  of  ,  .     •  ,v  •  ...  e  ..L      i.    i      / 

papal  ambition,  to  accept,  in  return,  the  gracious  sanction  of  the  holy  fa- 
ther, to  his  usurpation  of  the  throne  of  France,  (see  Gaul.) 
He  flew  to  the  relief  of  his  holiness,  retook  Ravenna  from  the  Lom- 
bards, and  piously  gave  the  spoil  to  St.  Peter,  whose  pretended  suc- 
cessor, the  bishop  of  Rome,  took  the  earthly  charge  of  the  sacred  patri- 
mony. Already  a  magistrate  at  Rome,  the  pope  now  becomes  a  tem- 
poral prince,  as  vicegerent  of  a  saint  in  heaven!  From  this  time  we 
may  more  particularly  style  Rome  papal;  though  the  pope  did  not 
become  a  formidable  potentate  till  after  the  death  of  his  powerful  pro- 
tectors, Pepin  and  Charlemagne. 

The  Franks  allowed  the  Lombards  to  retain  their  an- 

Lombardy   °and  cient  possessions  till  774,  when  Charlemagne,  the  son  of 

Germany  by    pepin,  being  called  into  Italy  to  protect  Rome  against  the 

Charlemagne.  *   .  i     i     • 

Lombards,  conquered  their  country,  and  was  crowned 
king  of  Lombardy.  In  thirty  cruel  campaigns  Be  conquered  Ger- 
many, and  baptized  the  pagan  Saxons  at  the  point  of  the  sword.  Part 
of  Spain  was  also  added  to  his  immense  empire. 

Charlemagne  (Charles  the  Great)  being  invited  to 
Rome  to  protect  Pope  Leo  III,  against  the  fury  of  his  own 
pir™  flock,  was  solemnly  crowned  emperor  of  the  West,  under 
ome  the  name  of  Charles  Augustus  Caesar.  (See  Gaul.)  As 
lemagrie.  y  ""  Rome  was  expressly  included  in  this  great  political  fabric, 
the  relation  between  the  pope  and  the  new  emperor  was  of 
a  very  delicate  nature.  But  the  ascendancy  of  Charlemagne  was  not 
to  be  shaken  by  a  priest  who  was  unable  to  control  his  own  flock ;  and 
mutual  good  offices  preserved  a  gracious  and  undisturbed  intimacy. 
The  papal  sanction  to  the  usurpation  of  Pepin  and  Charlemagne,  and 
the  holy  unction,  poured  on  the  imperial  head,  were  not  trifles  likely 
to  be  overlooked  by  future  popes,  who  could  dexterously  employ  them 
in  extorting  new  concessions,  or  baffle  weak  princes  by  withholding 
them.  Though  the  supremacy  of  Charlemagne  over  Rome  and  the 
pope  was  clear  and  undisputed,  yet  future  popes  could  choose  between 
rival  candidates,  and  the  one  a  pope  chose  to  approve  and  anoint,  was 
most  likely  to  prevail  in  a  disputed  succession.  By  these  means  it  was 
that  succeeding  popes  arrayed  people  against  their  princes,  one  prince 
against  another,  and  even  sons  against  their  fathers  ;  and  caught  the 
balance  of  political  power,  which  they  managed  with  sufficient  dexte- 
rity to  erect  at  Rame  a  throne  of  despotism  tenfold  more  frightful  than 


SARACENS 


121 


that  of  the  worst  tyrants  of  ancient  imperial  Rome.  No  sooner  was 
Charlemagne  dead,  than  the  succeeding  popes  began  to  inflame,  in- 
stead of  healing  the  discord  of  his  descendants ;  and  this  artful  policy 
soon  made  them  the  arbiters  of  princes. 


The  term  Sa- 
racen. 


Historical  sketch  of  the  Saracens. 

The  term  Saracen  signifies  Arabian  and  Mahometan,  and 
includes  an  idea  of  conquest.     It  was  originally  merely  the 
designation  of  a  single  tribe  in  Arabia. 

There  are  two  successive  Mahometan  empires,  viz.  The  Saracen  or 
Arabian  Mahometan  empire,  and  the  Turkish  Mahometan  empire. 
To  the  Saracen  Mahometan  empire  may  be  allowed  four  periods,  viz. 

1st  Period. — The  period  of  the  elective  caliphs  residing  at  Medina, 
viz.  Mahomet,  Abubeker,  Omar,  Othman,  Ali.  This  period  extended 
from  622  to  665,  or  43  years. 

2d  Period. — The  period  of  the  Oromiades,  or  the  hereditary  ca- 
liphs, descended  from  Ommyah,  (whence  they  derive  their  name,)  re- 
siding at  Damascus.  This  period  extends  from  665  to  750,  when 
Spain  separated  under  an  Ommiades  prince,  a  period  of  85  years. 

3d  Period. — The  first  period  of  the  Abbassides,  or  caliphs  descend- 
ed from  Abbas,  an  uncle  of  the  prophet  residing  at  Bagdad.  This 
period  extends  from  750  to  850,  100  years.  This  is  the  glorious  mag- 
nificent and  powerful  period  of  the  Abbassides. 

4th  Period. — The  second  period  of  the  Abbassides  at  Bagdad,  being 
the  falling  or  crumbling  period  of  the  Saracen  empire,  extending  from 
850  to  1258. 

TABLE  OF  SARACEN  CONQUESTS. 


A.  D.  569 
609 
623 
629 
632 

Commence- 
ment of  the 

conquests. 
633 


632 


Birth  of  Mohammed. 
Begins  to  preach. 
Hegira,  or  Flight. 
Conquest  of  Arabia. 
Death  of  Mohammed. 


Begin  to  conquer  Syria. 
Battle  of  Bozrah,  632. 
Battle  of  Aiznadin,  633. 
Siege  and    capture  of 

Damascus,  634. 
Capture  of  Balbec  and 

Einessa,  635. 
Battle  on  the  Yermuk, 

636. 
Surrender  of  Jerusalem, 

637. 
Surrender  of  Aleppo  and 

Antioch,  638. 
Final  conquett  of  Syria. 
Commencement  of  the 

conquest  of  Persia. 

Battle  of  Cadesia,  638. 
Capture  of  Ctesiphon, 

638. 
Final  conquest  of  Persia 


End  of  the 

comments. 

638 


638 
651 


651 


Commence- 
ment of  the 
conquests. 
A.  D.  638 


709 

711 

823 
827 


Begin  the  conquest  of 
Egypt. 

Capture  of  Pelusium  and 
Memphis,  638. 

Capture  of  Alexandria, 
and  final  cocqueat  of 
Egypt 

Final  conqtest  of  Africa, 
by  the  taking  of  Car- 
thage-   

Conquest  of  Spain,  ex- 
cept Asturias  

Conquest  of  Crete 

Conquest  of  Sicily,  ex- 
cept Syracuse, 

Capture  of  Syracutt, 
878. 

Saracen  settlements  in 
Calabria. 


End. 
639 


639 

709 

714 
823 

838 


16 


122  SARACENS. 

MOHAMMED. 

A.D.  569      Mohammed,  the  Arabian  prophet,  was  born  of  a  princely 
BomatMecca.  ijne  at  Mecca.     Naturally  enthusiastic,  superstitious,  and 
addicted  to  the  study  of  religious  mysteries,  he  listened  eagerly  to  the 
doctrines  of  the  Jews,  Christians  and  Persians,  whom  he  met  in  the 
short  excursions  which  he  made  for  the  purposes  of  trade  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood.    He  embraced  the  sublime  idea  of  the  unity  of  the  divine 
Spirit,  rejected  the  idolatrous  worship  of  his  countrymen,  and  set  about 
framing  a  new  religion  for  them.     At  the  age  of  forty  he  gave  out  that 
he  was  inspired,  the  chosen  minister  of  God  on  earth,  and 
609      began  to  preach  his  religion.     The  labour  of  the  first  three 
preach!"  years  was  n°t  very  encouraging — it  produced  him  but  four- 
teen converts,  including  the  rich  widow  Cadijah,  whom  he 
had  married,  and  his  cousin  Ali.     Their  numbers  however  increased, 
until,  in  622,  he  had  become  sufficiently  important  to  be  driven  from 
Mecca  by  the  Korish,  the  guardians  of  the  old  religion. 
622      This  Hegira,  or  flight  of  Mahommed,  is  the  year  1  of  Ma- 
?lra"     hometans.     At  Medina,   he  was  received  as  a  prince  and 
prophet,  and  the  ten  years  of  his  residence  in  that  city  were  ten  years 
of  conquest.     All  Arabia  was  subdued,  and  Ishmael's  roving 
children  then  first  acknowledged  a  single  leader.     He  died 
at  Medina. 

The  choice  of  his  successor  gave  rise  to  the  great  schism  which  still 
survives  in  the  hatred  of  the  Persians  and  Turks.  The  former  revere 
Ali  as  the  vicar  of  God — the  latter  deny  his  right  of  succession.  The 
Persians  are  denominated  Scheyes,  or  Shiites,  their  enemies  Sunnees, 
or  Sonnites. 

The  good  old  Abubeker,  father-in-law  of  Mohammed,  in  his  short 
reign,  began,  through  his  general  Kaled,  the  sword  of  God,  that  tre- 
mendous course  of  conquest  which  was  destined  to  carry  their  victo- 
rious arms  over  a  great  part  of  the  Eastern  hemisphere.  Thirty-six 
thousand  cities  and  villages  are  said  to  have  been  subdued  by  Omar, 
and  the  first  century  of  conquest  placed  Persia,  Syria,  Egypt,  Africa, 
and  Spain  itahe  hands  of  the  Saracens. 

About  the  year  700  they  overcame  the  Moors,  or  Berbers  of  Africa, 
who  adopted  the,  language  and  manners  of  their  conquerors,  and  grad- 
ually became  confounded  with  them.     They  passed  over  to- 
gether   to  the  conquest  of  Spain.     Under  the   Ommiades 
OIspain.  °  Constantinople  was   twice  besieged.     In  668  the  Saracens 
first  approached  it,  and  seven  successive  years  brought  im- 
mense armies  for   its  destruction.      They  were  repulsed  by  Greek 
fire.     In  717  they  made  another  unsuccessful  attempt.     Constantinople 
stood,  its  people  were  degenerate,  but  the  place  was  strong,  and  its 
new  and  mysterious  weapon  of  destruction  carried  terror  before  it.    In 
both  sieges  the  Saracen  fleets  were  consumed. 

Though  Constantinople  locked  the  door  of  Europe  on  the 

?31.     East,  the  Saracens  had  already  entered  it  on  the  West,  and 

France"   crossing  the  Pyrenees,  they  desolated  France  to  the  Loire. 

Charles  Martel  proceeded  cautiously,  allowed  them  to  grow 

careless  and  fancy  themselves  secure,  and  then  coming  upon  them,  he 


S  ARAC  ENS. 

shut  them  up  in  Bouillet  in  Poictou,  and  left  more  than  350,000  Sara- 
cens dead  upon  the  field.  Thus  Charles  Martel  and  Constantinople 
saved  Europe  from  the  Mohammedan  yoke.  Vast  numbers  of  Sara- 
cens settled  in  the  south  of  France. 

7-ft  The  last  of  the  Ommiades  was  slain,  and  Almansor,  of  the 
line  of  Abbas,  laid  the  foundation  of  Bagdad,  and  made  it  the 
seat  of  government. 

7- _  Abdurrahman,  of  the  family  of  Ommiades,  escaped  to  Spain, 
and  established  there  an  independent  caliphate,  which  lasted 
more  than  two  centuries. 

-Q.  We  find  Haroun  Al  Raschid  reducing  to  obedience  the  poor 
Nicephorus,  surrounded  at  Bagdad  by  luxury  and  splen- 
dour, patronizing  science,  literature  and  the  arts,  and  adorning  in  his 
own  character  the  golden  era  of  the  Saracen  empire.  He  still  reign- 
ed in  800. 


A  CHRONOLOGICAL  INDEX 

Of  the  most  important  Events,  from  the  Birth  of 
Christ  to  the  Reign  of  Charlemagne. 

1       Augustus  had  already  reigned  forty-one  years;  about  ten 
wK  eSKffii with  Antony  and  thirty-one  alone.     He  reigned  until  A.D. 
14.     Christ  actually  born  A.  M.  4000,  four  years  earlier. 

50  Britain  added  to  the  Roman  empire,  fifty  years  after  the 
birth  of  Christ,  in  the  reign  of  Claudius.  It  was  visited  by 
Julius  Caesar  fifty  years  before  Christ,  and  finally  conquered 
with  great  difficulty. 

100  Actually  96.  Nerva,  first  of  the  good  emperors,  who  were 
successively  adopted.  Happy  period  for  nearly  one  hundred 
years— except  during  the  horrid  reign  of  Commodus.  After 
him  anarchy  till  A.  D.  193. 

200  193  Pertinax  succeeds  the  dreadful  Commodus.  Pertinax 
killed  by  the  pretorians,  of  whom  Julian  Didius  buys  the  em- 
pire. Severus  on  the  Danube,  Albinus  in  Britain,  Niger  in 
Syria.  Severus  prevails,  and  disbands  the  pretorian  guards, 
but  establishes  a  new  guard  of  a  similar  nature. 

225  About  this  time  Parthia  changes  to  Persia,  with  a  new  Per- 
sian dynasty.  The  following  interval  is  filled  with  the  rapid 
succession  of  emperors — feeble,  contemptible. 

250  Thirty  tyrants  or  usurpers.  Empire  in  fragments.  Franks 
in  Belgium ;  Allemanni  in  Swabia ;  Visigoths  and  Ostro- 
•  goths,  north  of  the  Black  Sea.  These  different  hordes  of 
savages  pressed  upon  the  different  frontiers  of  the  empire, 
often  made  irruptions,  and  kept  the  emperors  and  their  pro.- 
vinces  in  constant  alarm. 

275  Aurelian  dies  this  year — the  conqueror  of  Zenobia  and  other 
usurpers.  (Zenobia,  queen  of  the  East.)  Claudian,  Aurelian, 
and  Probus  had  short  reigns,  but  they  did  much  towards  sav- 
ing the  empire. 

284  Diocletian  and  his  imperial  colleagues  restore  the  empire, 
but  Rome  was  no  longer  the  capital.  Diocletian  lived  at 
Nicomedia,  Maximinian  at  Milan,  Constantius  in  Britain. 

300  Splendour  and  triumph  of  the  imperial  colleagues,  who  re- 
stored the  empire  to  its  unity,  suppressed  usurpers,  repressed 
Franks,  Allemanni,  Goths,  Persians,  &c.  Distinction  of  Au- 
gustus and  Caesar. 


INDEX.  125 

307  Constantine  the  Great  succeeds  his  father  in  Britain ;  has 
many  competitors,  whom  he  overcomes,  one  after  another, 
until  he  becomes  sole  emperor,  in  325. 

312  Constantine  conquers  his  competitor  and  brother-in-law, 
Maxentius,  and  Rome  and  Italy  submit  to  him. 

325  Constantine  having  overcome  all  competitors,  embraced 
Christianity;  called  the  council  of  Nice  to  settle  its  doctrine, 
and  began  to  build  Constantinople. 

327  Constantine  dies,  dividing  his  empire  between  his  three  sons; 
of  whom  Constantine  reigned  three  years  over  Gaul,  Spain, 
and  Britain,  and  died  in  the  war  he  made  upon  Constans  in 
Italy.  Constans  reigned  over  Italy  three  years  ;  over  Italy, 
Gaul,  and  Britain,  thirteen  years,  and  died  350,  leaving  the 
whole  empire  to  Constantius.  These  three  brothers,  from 
jealousy,  put  to  death  nearly  all  their  relatives. 

350  Constantius  sole  emperor  after  the  death  of  both  his  brothers. 
He  first  made  his  cousin  Gallus  his  colleague  and  Caesar, 
but  soon  put  him  to  death  for  his  enormous  vices. 

355  Constantius  makes  his  cousin  Julian,  Caesar ;  sends  him  to 
Gaul  against  the  Franks  and  Allemanni,  who  laid  waste  that 
province.  Julian's  great  fame  and  success  excites  his  envy. 

360  Constantius  sends  for  Julian's  best  legions ;  these  refusing  to 
leave  Julian,  proclaim  him  Augustus,  and  march  against 
Constantius,  who  dies,  and  Julian  is  sole  emperor.  Julian 
dies  in  Parthia. 

Valentinian  rules  in  the  West,  and  Valens  in  the  East.  Va- 
lentinian  succeeded  by  his  son  Gratian  in  the  West. 

375  The  savage,  deformed,  hideous  Huns,  Tartars,  from  Asia, 
crossed  the  Wolga,  entered  Europe,  routed  the  Alans  and 
Ostrogoths,  entangled  themselves  in  the  empire,  and  passed 
on  to  Hungary. 

In  the  mean  time  the  terrified  Visigoths  fled  to  the  Danube, 
got  permission  of  Valens  to  settle  in  Moesia  and  Thrace ; 
rose  in  rebellion,  killed  Valens  in  the  fatal  battle  of  Adrian- 
ople ;  and  were  painfully  repressed  by  Theodosius  the  Great, 
successor  to  Valens. 

395  Theodosius  divides  the  empire  into  East  and  West,  and  leaves 
both  empires  a  prey  to  the  Visigoths  and  Huns.  Alaric, 
king  of  the  Visigoths,  ravages  Greece. 

400  On  the  entrance  of  Alaric  into  Italy  with  his  Visigoths,  Ho- 
norius  fled  from  Milan  to  Ravenna,  which  became  the  capi- 
tal of  the  West,  on  account  of  the  security  offered  by  the 
water  on  one  side  and  impassable  marshes  on  the  other. 


126  INDEX. 

409  Burgundians  settle  in  Switzerland  and  the  east  of  Gaul. 
Vandals  pass  through  Gaul  into  Spain,  after  which  the  feeble 
Romans  have  but  little  authority  in  Spain. 

413-14-15  Alaric  sacks  Rome  after  three  sieges.     Dies  in  the  south 
•    of  Italy,  and  his  Visigoths  follow  a  new  leader  into  Gaul ; 
where  they  founded  a  Visigothic  kingdom. 

425  Honorius  dies ;  his  sister,  Placidia,  reigns  as  regent  for  her 
son,  Valentinian  3d. 

429  Vandals  under  Genseric,  invited  by  Count  Boniface,  pass 
into  Africa,  and  subduing  that  Roman  province,  establish  a 
Vandal  kingdom.  The  Britons,  abandoned  by  the  Romans 
and  restored  to  independence,  were  unable  to  defend  them- 
selves against  the  Picts  and  Scots. 

449  Saxons  begin  to  settle  in  Britain. 

450  Attila,  king  of  the  Huns,  lays  waste  Gaul  and  the  north  of 
Italy,  after  he  was  defeated  at  Chalons.     Venice  built  in  the 
sea  by  those  who  fled  from  Attila.     Theodosius  2d  dies. 

455  Death  of  Valentinian  3d ;  whose  widow,  Eudoxia,  married 
his  murderer,  Maximus,  who  succeeded :  but,  on  discovering 
the  murder,  she  invited  Genseric  from  Africa,  who  sacked 
Rome  fourteen  days,  and  carried  off  plunder,  Eudoxia  and 
all,  into  Africa. 

476  Odoacer,  king  of  the  savage  Heruli,  conquers  Italy,  deposes 
Augustulus,  the  last  feeble  emperor.  Odoacer  sends  the  im- 
perial ornaments,  as  so  many  bagatelles,  to  Constantinople, 
and  takes  the  title  of  king  of  Italy,  instead  of  preserving  the 
vain  title  of  emperor,  when  all  the  provinces  were  severed 
from  the  empire  by  other  rude  savages.  This  year  (476) 
is  called  the  end  of  the  Western  Roman  Empire.  As  an 
empire,  it  had  been  rent  and  reduced  before,  by  Burgundi- 
ans, Vandals,  Visigoths,  Saxons,  &c. 

481  to  500  During  this  period  the  Franks  under  Clovis  pushed  from 
Belgium  into  Gaul,  and  vanquished  the  Burgundians  and 
Visigoths.  The  Ostrogoths,  who  were  disentangled  from 
the  Hunnish  empire  on  the  death  of  Attila,  enter  Italy,  after 
menacing  Constantinople ;  conquered  Odoacer,  and  Theodo- 
sius their  king  became  king  of  Italy,  493. 

500  The  end  of  the  Western  Roman  Empire  is  dated  476,  (see 
above,)  and  was  in  fact  rent  to  pieces  before  that  period ;  yet 
the  barbarians  did  not  become  settled  and  quiet  in  their  re- 
spective provinces  until  about  this  date,  500 ;  but  now  the 
Franks  are  spread  over  Gaul.  The  Visigoths  retiring  be- 
fore the  conquering  Franks,  settle  in  Spain ;  the  Vandals 
have  passed  into  Africa,  429.  The  Ostrogoths  were  estab- 
lished in  Italy  since  493,  under  the  Great  Theodoric.  The 


INDEX. 

Saxons  are  making  great  progress  in  Britain ;  and  thus  the 
wreck  of  the  Great  Western  Empire  is  divided  among  sav- 
ages: but  New  Rome,  or  Constantinople,  will  long  resist 
the  dreadful  shock. 

525  About  this  time  the  Great  Theodoric  dies  in  Italy,  and  leaves 
his  kingdom  in  the  feeble  hands  of  his. daughter  and  her  mi- 
nor son.  Justinian  began  to  reign,  at  Constantinople,  527 : 
a  man  who  had  the  discernment  and  wisdom  to  select  the 
best  men  to  conduct  every  department  of  his  affairs. 

535  About  this  time  Belisarius,  the  general  of  Justinian,  subdued 
the  Vandals,  and  added  Africa  to  the  Eastern  Empire  ;  then 
invaded  Sicily  and  Italy;  and,  after  prodigies  of  valour,  sub- 
dued the  Ostrogoths,  and  added  Italy  to  the  Eastern  Empire; 
which,  however,  was  not  wholly  completed  until  550. 

550  By  this  time  all  farther  resistance  of  the  Ostrogoths  to  Justi- 
nian becomes  vain  :  Italy  and  Africa  belongs  to  him.  Turk- 
ish Pagan  Empire  begins  east  of  the  Caspian.  No  Moham- 
medans yet.  These  Pagan  Turks  east  of  the  Caspian,  in 
the  interior  of  Asia,  these  Scythians  or  Tartars,  long  after, 
become  Mohammedans,  and  overrun  the  west  of  Asia,  &c., 
not  until  after  A.  D.  1000. 

568  Justinian  dies.  Lombards  rush  into  Italy  from  Pannonia, 
conquer  the  North  and  middle,  leaving  Ravenna,  Ancona 
and  the  east  coast,  Rome,  Naples  and  the  west  coast,  to  the 
Eastern  emperors,  until  about  750.  The  relative  position  of 
the  Lombards  and  Eastern  emperors  was  always  perplexing, 
and  finally  led  to  great  events  from  725  to  750.  The  empe- 
rors had  exarchs,  that  is  out-rulers  residing  at  Ravenna, 
which  was  then  called  the  Exarchate. 

581  About  this  time  the  language  of  Italy  undergoes  a  change. 
The  barbarous  tongues  of  the  several  nations  who  had  over- 
run Italy,  Heruli,  Ostrogoths,  Lombards,  had  corrupted  and 
confounded  the  Latin. 

600  The  Heptarchy  now  completed.      Gregory  1st,  or  Great, 
(who  began  his  pontificate  590,)  sends  St.  Augustine  and 
others  to  convert  the  pagan  Saxons.  Under  this  pope  the  papal 
jurisdiction  was  also  extended  over  the  Arian  Visigoths  and 
Lombards,  who  were  all  converted  to  the  catholic  faith. 

601  Mohammed  begins  to  preach  at  Mecca.     Heraclius  begins 
to  reign  at  Constantinople.     Chosroes,  king  of  Persia,  con- 
quers Syria,  Palestine,  Asia  Minor,  a  part  of  Egypt,  &c. 

622  Hegira,  or  flight  of  Mohammed  from  Mecca  to  Medina.  Mo- 
hammed a  prince,  a  prophet ;  returns,  converts  his  relatives 
and  friends  in  Mecca  at  the  sword's  point,  and  conquers 
Arabia.  From  this  time,  and  not  before,  we  call  the  Ara- 


128  INDEX. 

bians  Saracens,  which  of  course  applies  only  to  Arabians  from 
the  time  of  Mohammed. 

632  Mohammed  died,  but  his  successors  soon  conquered  Pales- 
tine and  Syria  from  the  Eastern  emperors — at  the  same  time 
with  other  armies  conquered  Persia. 

650  By  about  this  time  the  Saracens,  that  is,  the  Arabian  Moham- 
medan empire,  extended  to  Media  in  the  East,  and  five  years 
after  to  Egypt.  Amrou  conquered  Egypt  and  burned  the 
famous  Alexandrian  library,  founded  by  the  Ptolemies.  After 
the  conquest  of  Egypt,  the  Saracens  push  on  gradually 
through  Africa,  until  about  700,  by  which  time  it  is  all  con- 
quered. 

665  Damascus  becomes  the  seat  of  the  caliphs  instead  of  Medina. 
Ommyades  caliphs  resigned  at  Damascus,  that  is  caliphs  de- 
scended from  a  man  named  Ommyah.  The  Saracens  still 
prosecute  their  war  in  Africa  against  the  Eastern  Emperors. 

675  Saracens  besieged  Constantinople,  which  was  saved  by  Greek 
fire.  The  Saracens  never  succeeded  in  passing  into  Europe 
by  Constantinople,  though  they  long  attempted  it. 

700  From  632  to  700,  the  Saracens  had  conquered  from  the 
Eastern  emperors,  or  emperors  of  Constantinople,  parts  of 
Asia  Minor  and  the  whole  coast  of  Africa. 

712  Saracens,  under  the  name  of  Moors,  which  means  Saracens 
from  Morocco,  conquer  Spain.  Thus  the  Saracens  entered 
Europe  from  Morocco.  A  handful  of  Christian  Visigoths  in 
Asturias. 

717  Saracens  a  second  time  unsuccessfully  besiege  Constantino- 
ple. The  few  Christians  saved  in  Asturias  resist  the  Sara- 
cens of  Spain,  and  gradually  increase  at  the  expense  of  the 
Saracens.  The  Saracens  were  not  all  driven  out  till  after 
800  years.  They  were  driven  out  of  Grenada  by  Ferdi- 
nand 1500. 

725  About  this  time,  the  Isaurian  family,  reigning  at  Constantino- 
ple, became  zealous  Iconoclasts,  or  Image-breakers.  They 
could  execute  their  edicts  at  Constantinople,  but  not  in  Italy. 
All  this  time  the  war  is  about  images.  The  Eastern  empe- 
rors were  determined  to  enforce  their  edicts  in  Italy,  and  the 
popes  and  Italians  determined  to  resist.  The  Lombards  took 
advantage  of  the  quarrel,  and  twice  took  Ravenna  and  threat- 
ened Rome,  in  which  case  the  popes  or  bishops  of  Rome  had 
recourse  to  the  Franks,  first  Charles  Martel  and  then  Pepin, 
who  said  "  anoint  me  king." 

,  732  Charles  Martel  defeats  the  Saracens  and  drives  them  out  of 
France,  and  saves  Europe  from  the  darkness  of  Mohamme- 
danism. 


INDEX.  129 

750  Bagdad  the  Saracen  capital  instead  of  Damascus.  Abbassa- 
des  caliphs.  Spain  separated  under  a  branch  of  Ommyades. 
Pepin,  Popes,  Bagdad.  Pepin  1st,  Carlovingian.  Popes 
become  temporal  princes.  The  Abbassades  caliphs,  (that  is 
descended  from  Abbas,  uncle  of  Mahomet,)  at  Bagdad  intro- 
duced their  splendour,  learning,  &c.  Pepin  made  popes 
princes.  Popes  anointed  Pepin. 

768  Charlemagne  became  king  of  France  by  the  death  of  his 
father  Pepin. 

774  Charlemagne  conquers  the  Lombards  in  Italy,  and  in  the 
mean  while  prosecutes  his  ambitious  wars  and  superstitious 
conquests  in  Germany  against  the  pagan  Saxons,  whom  he 
conquered  and  converted  in  thirty  cruel  campaigns.  His 
wars  with  them  lasted  till  800.  In  the  mean  time  Charle- 
magne also  conquered  Spain  to  the  Ebro. 

800  Charlemagne  crowned  emperor  of  the  West  at  Rome,  with 
the  title  of  Charles  Augustus  Casar.  Papal  oil  and  sanc- 
tions fruitful  of  future  quarrels.  The  conquest  and  final 
crowning  of  Charlemagne  is  called  the  Restoration  of  the. 
Western  Roman  Empire.  It  did  not,  however,  include 
Britain,  Africa,  nor  all  Spain.  It  must  be  called  the  Frank 
Western  Roman  Empire,  which  soon  crumbled  to  pieces 
under  the  feeble  successors  of  Charlemagne. 


17 


130 

History  of  Spain,  Gaul,  Italy,  after  the  time  of 
Charlemagne. 

SPAIN. 

Visigoths.  Spain  was  (A.D.  500)  overrun  by  the  savage  Visigoths, 
Vandals,  &c.,  tribes  from  Germany,  while  the  other  provinces  of  the 
west  shared  a  similar  fate. 

Saracens  or  The  Saracens,  or  Moors,  subdued  the  Christian  Visi- 
eipain,  and^are  goths,  A.D.  711,  who  did  not  recover  the  whole  coun- 
not  entirely  ex-  try  till  the  time  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella,  after  a  san- 

pelled  or  subdued      * .  i        r  i      o/w\  •  c 

tin  the  time  of  gumary  struggle  of  nearly  800  years.  The  marriage  ot 
bena'To  isooa  Ferdinand  and  Isabella,  and  their  conquest,  united  all 
Spain  united  en-  Spain  into  one  monarchy,  to  which  America,  Naples, 

larges  into  au  em-  £•    M        «  jjf   j 

pjre  oiciiy,  ozc.,  were  soon  added. 

Charles  v.  &  his      This  great  inheritance  passed,   1516,  to  the  Austrian 
Austria^  succes-  Charles  V.,  which  was  the  means  of  adding  Netherlands, 
Milan,  &c.,  to  this  swelling  empire,  which,  under  Charles 
and  his  Austrian  successors,  formed  one  of  the  great  states  of  Europe 
French  Bourbons tl^  1700,  when  the  chief  part  of  these  vast  possessions  pass- 
ed to  the  French  Bourbons,  while  the  rest  reverted  to 
Austria. 

GAUL. 

,  ,  -  In  the  age  of  the  Carlovingians,  from   about  800  to 

Feudal  System.    ,__„       .    T^      T-I  n     i 

1000,  A. D.,  trance  was  generally  parcelled  out  among 
dukes,  who  acquired  direct  and  absolute  control  over  the  people  in  their 
respective  dukedoms;  while  one  of  them  bore  the  title  of  king  of  France, 
with  a  certain  acknowledged  supremacy  over  the  others ;  but  with  no 
direct  control  over  the  people,  except  in  his  own  ducal  dominions.  This 
king  looked  to  the  other  dukes  for  homage  and  military  service,  and 
the  dukes  looked  to  the  people  for  the  same.  This  was  called  the 
feudal  system,  and  under  various  modifications  generally  prevailed  in 
Europe.  It  grew  out  of  confusion,  accident,  favoritism,  usurpation,  &c. 

It  was  a  system  of  weakness  and  distraction,  opening  to  artful  princes 
and  popes  the  means  of  humbling  a  rival,  by  arraying  against  him  his 
own  rebellious  dukes  and  vassals.  The  king  was  often  braved  by  his 
dependent  dukes,  and  the  duke,  by  having  a  direct  control  over  his 
people  and  revenues,  was  often  more  powerful  than  the  king. 

As  most  of  the  dukedoms  could  be  inherited  by  females,  it  often 
happened  that  an  heiress  transferred  her  inheritance  by  marriage  to  a 
foreign  and  rival  sovereign.  In  this  way  the  Norman  and  Plantagenet 
kings  of  England  became  vassals  to  the  kings  of  France,  and  dukes  of 
all  the  provinces  from  the  Channel  to  the  Pyrenees.  Though  these 
acquisitions  placed  them  in  the  legal  relation  of  vassals  to  the  kings  of 
France,  yet  as  these  dukes  or  vassals  had  the  direct  control  over  the 
people  and  the  revenues,  the  feudal  relation  was  merely  nominal. 

Yet  the  kings  of  France  took  advantage  of  the  absence 
Gradual  annexa-  and  occasional  weakness  of  the  kings  of  England,  and 
domsVthecrow'n  conquered  all  their  possessions  in  France,  one  after  an- 
other.    And  finally,  though  slowly,  by  marriage,  conquest, 
purchase,  exchange,  &c.,  the  kings  got  all  the  French  dukedoms  an- 


ITALY.  131 

nexed  to  the  crown  by  1735.  Even  as  early  as  1500,  (Charles  VIII., 
Louis  XII.,  Francis  I.,)  so  many  provinces  had  been  gained  as  to  give 
France  a  new  rank  among  the  states  of  Europe.  From  the  time  of 
Francis  the  First,  France  was  able  to  make  a  great  struggle  against 
the  two  houses  of  Austria,  (German  and  Spanish  branches:  see  Spain,) 
till  1700,  when  Spain  and  its  appendages,  after  a  bloody  contest,  pass- 
ed from  the  Austrians  to  the  French  Bourbons,  whose  branches  were 
multiplied  also  in  Naples,  Sicily,  and  Parma. 

Even  before  this  multiplication  of  Bourbon  branches, 

Bourbons.  .     -,ITT    r     ,   ,,T-TT     i      i 

Henry  IV.,  Louis  XIII.  and  XIV.,  had  very  much  influ- 
enced the  destinies  of  Europe.  Louis  XIV.  had  domineered  over  the 
world  for  forty  years,  and  the  Austrians  had  ceased  to  be  terrible  be- 
fore the  Spanish  branch  became  extinct;  and  the  Bourbon  enterprises 
provoked  continual  fears  and  wars,  till  they  were  humbled  in  the  long 
and  universal  wars  concluded  by  the  peace  of  Paris,  1763.  The  de- 
clining race  was  swept  by  the  storm  of  the  French  revolution. 

Napoleon,  by  a  selfish  and  rigid  despotism,  arrested  the  horrors  of 
that  revolution,  and  by  his  unparalleled  success  in  arms,  swelled  France 
into  a  mighty  empire.  The  idolatry  of  the  world,  and  presumption  of 
Napoleon,  led  him  to  ruin  ;  and  we  see  the  Bourbons  creeping  out  of 
their  hiding  places,  only  to  demonstrate  that  they  are  incapable  of  pro- 
fiting by  the  lessons  of  adversity  and  experience. 

ITALY. 

At  last,  A.D.  912,   when  the  German  Carlovingian 
(Holy)    German  branch  became  extinct,  the  German  princes  established 

Roman    Empire,  ,  ,._          n    j    i  •  e   r~i 

including  both  an  elective  chief,  called  king  or  emperor  of  Germany. 
thTemperor^nd  Tiiey  commonly  elected  one  of  their  own  number,  (though 
pope  always  dis-  sometimes  a  foreign  prince,)  and  the  office  always  con- 
macyf  e  tinued  strictly  elective,  even  when  it  passed  several  gene- 

rations from  father  to  son,  as  it  did  in  the  ducal  lines  of 
Franconia,  Saxony,  Swabia,  and  Austria.  In  960,  Otho  the  Great,  the 
third  elective  emperor  of  Germany,  conquered  Italy,  and  was  crowned 
and  anointed  Roman  emperor,  with  the  usual  title  of  Augustus,  &c. 
Though  in  this  manner  he  became  acknowledged  lord  of  Italy  and  the 
pope,  yet  this  old  ceremony  of  crowning  and  anointing,  laid  the  founda- 
tion of  those  conflicting  pretensions  that  kept  Italy,  Germany,  and  Eu- 
rope so  long  embroiled.  The  spiritual  thunders  of  the  popes  prevailed 
at  least  as  often  as  the  carnal  weapons  of  the  emperors,  who  generally 
found  one  half  their  own  princes  arrayed  against  them  in  any  conflict 
with  a  pope.  This  ghostly  power  over  the  minds  of  men,  was  first 
arrested  about  1500,  by  the  Protestant  Reformation,  and  the  strong  arm 
of  the  emperor  Charles  V.,  who  was  as  much  an  enemy  to  thepoliti- 
cal  pretensions  of  the  pope,  as  he  was  to  the  religious  reformation  of 
the  people. 

During  the  Crusades,  (see  table  for  the  East,)  we  see 
thatrCaivvay"cere  the  popes  (1 100 — 1270)  setting  Christendom  in  holy  com- 
"ower"1  *e  papal  moti°ni  and  directing  to  their  own  profit  the  wild  enter- 
prises of  fanatacism.  The  artful  and  uniform  system  of 
encroachment  pursued  by  a  long  succession  of  popes,  is  worthy  of  our 
philosophic  curiosity.  But  their  authority  was  impaired  particularly 


132  SARACENS. 

in  Rome  itself,  by  rival  ambition,  by  competitors,  and  anti-popes — by 
their  shameless  profligacy,  and  by  seditions.  They  overwhelmed  many 
prince?,  but  princes  sometimes  defied,  and  overwhelmed  popes.  Some- 
times two,  and  even  three  popes  divided  Christendom,  and  their  own 
councils  long  questioned  their  supreme  authority.  Several  attempts 
were  made  to  subvert  or  restrain  their  temporal  power  at  Rome,  par- 
ticularly by  Arnold  of  Brescia,  who  governed  Rome  ten  years,  1140, 
and  by  Nicholas  Rienza,  who  was  near  becoming  the  sovereign  of 
Italy,  1347,  (while  the  pope  was  at  Avignon.)  Even  when  distant 
princes  trembled  at  his  name,  the  pope  often  had  to  seek  refuge  in  the 
neighbouring  cities  from  an  enraged  people.  By  the  influence  of  the 
French  kings  and  cardinals,  the  popes  resided  seventy  years  at  Avig- 
non in  France,  and  their  return  to  Rome  resulted  in  the  famous  schism 
of  the  west,  1377 — 1414.  It  was  not  till  after  their  spiritual  power 
came  to  a  stand,  1500,  that  they  began  to  enjoy  a  settled  authority  over 
their  own  capital. 


Crumbling  period  of  the  Saracen  Empire. 

A.D.750  Spain  was  cut  off  from  the  empire.   Its  caliph  was  Abdurrah- 
man ;  its  capital  Cordova. 

850  Morocco  was  cut  off  under  a  caliph  named  Mervanold,  mean- 
ing "  Commander  of  the  Faithful."     About  the  same  time 
Algiers,  Tunis,  Tripoli,  and  Egypt,  were  severed  under  their  respec- 
tive caliphs. 

Q~Q  Egypt,  under  caliphs  called  Fatimites;  from  Fatima  the 
daughter  of  Mahomet,  conquered  the  Holy  Land  and  Syria. 
Persia  and  India  were  next  lopped  off,  where  there  was  a  succes- 
sion of  barbarous  dynasties,  till  at  last  the  caliph  of  Bagdad  was  a 
miserable  phantom,  dressed  in  priestly  robes,  retaining  the  grandeur 
iof  his  palace  and  person. 

qoq     The  Bowides  stripped  the   caliph  Rhadi  of  his  temporal 
power,  and  left  him  a  mere  priest.     The  Turks  took  the 
1055    temporal  power. 


Historical  sketch  of  the  Turkish  or  Tartar 
Mahommedan  Empire. 

This  empire  may  be  divided  into  four  periods,  viz. 

Isf  Period. — The  pagan  period  of  the  Turks,  extending  from  about 
550  to  about  850,  300  years,  during  which  time  they  resided  in  the 
deserts  of  Scythia,  in  the  centre  of  Asia. 

2d  Period. — Their  gradual  conversion  to  the  Mahommedan  faith, 
.extending  from  850  to  1050,  when  they  began  to  move,  a  period  of 
200  years. 

3d  Period. — The  period  of  their  conquests,  from  1050  to  1453,  a 
•period  of  403  years. 


TAB  LE. 

4th  Period. — The  period  of  the  Turkish  Mahommedan  empire  in 
Europe  and  the  wars  of  Asia,  from  1453  to  the  present  time,  385 
years. 

1025     Turks  begin  to  move  west,  and  finding  the  Arabian  empire 
crumbling  to  pieces,  they  overrun  Persia,  take  Bagdad,  and 
deprive  the  caliph  of  his  authority  as  a  prince,  but  respect  him  as  a 
priest. 

The  Seljukian  Turks,  or  Turks  descended  from  Seljuk,  had  three 
great  leaders,  Togrulbeg,  Alparslem,  and  Malek  Shah. 

.Q~r  They  take  the  holy  city  from  the  Fatamite  caliphs  of  Egypt, 
(who  took  it  in  960)  while  another  tribe,  under  Solyman, 
conquers  Asia  Minor  and  threatens  Constantinople.  The  Turks,  not- 
withstanding their  great  prowess  and  power,  will  be  400  years  taking 
Constantinople.  Why  so  long  ?  Because  they  were  three  times  brok- 
en up.  and  three  times  rallied  again. 

1100    Broken  up — 1st,  by  the  Crusaders,  but  rallied  again. 
1200         "      "         2d,  by  a  new  invasion  of  Tartars  under  Genghis 
Khan,  but  rallied  again  in  Asia  Minor,  under 
Othman. 

1400        "       "        3d,  by  a  third  inundation  of  Tartars  under  Ta- 
merlane. 


Table  of  the  Kings  of  England. 

KINGS  OF  THE  SAXON  MONARCHY, 

'  -       From  828  to  1066—238  years.  . ,   .     .„  •  , 

A.  D.  828        800        Egbert. 

Ethelwolf. 
Ethelbald. 
Ethelbert. 
Ethelred. 
Alfred.  — 

A.  D.  900        Edward,  the  Elder. 
(Athelstan.) 
Edmund. 
Edred. 
Edwy. 
Edgar. 

Edward  the  Martyr. — 
A.  D.  1000         Ethelred  2rf. 

Edmund  Ironside. — 

Three  Danish  Kings, 

1000         Canute,  Harold,  and  Hardicanute. 
Edward  the  Confessor. 
Harold.— 

The  whole  period  of  the  Saxon  monarchy  was  distinguished  by  the 
incursions  of  a  people  they  called  Danes,  but  called  by  the  French 
Normans.  England  conquered  by  the  Normans  1066. 


134  TABLE. 

NORMAN  FAMILY. 
From  1066  to  1154—88  years. 

William,  Conqueror.        1066 — 1087  reigned  21  years. 

William  Rufus.                1087—1100  13 

A.  D.  1100    Henry  1st.                        1100—1135  35 

Stephen.                           1135—1154  19 

PLANTAGENET. 
From  1154  to  1399--245  years. 

Henry  3d.  1154—1189  reigned  35  years. 

Richard  1st.                     1189—1199  10 

A.  D.  1200    John.                               1199—1216  17 

Henry  3d.                         1216—1272  56 

A.  D.  1300    Edward  1st.                     1272—1307  35 

Edward  2d.                      1307—1327       i  20 

Edward  3d.                      1327—1377  50 

Richard  2d.                      1377—1399  22 

LANCASTER. 

From  1399  to  1471  (Lewis  14th)— 72  years.  • 

A.  D.  1400    Henry  4th.  1399—1413  reigned  14  years. 

Henry  5th.                       1413—1422  9 

Henry  6th.                       1422—1471  49 

YORK. 

From  1471  to  1485—14  years. 

Edward  4th.  1471 — 1483  reigned   12  years. 

Edward  5th  was  only  crowned. 

Richard  3d.                     1483—1485  2 

TUDOR. 

'       From  1485  to  1603— 118  years.    (Punic  Wars.) 

A.  D.  1500    Henry  7th.  1485—1509  reigned  24  years. 

Hen  ry  8th  and  3  children.      1 509—  1 547  38 

Edward  6th.                     1547—1553  6 

Mary.                               1553—1558  5 

Elizabeth.                        1558—1603  45 

STEWART. 

From  1603  to  1714.— Ill  years.    (Cromwell  off  100.) 

A.  D.  1600     James  1st.  1603—1625  reigned  22  years. 

Charles  1st.                      1625—1649  24 

Cromwell.                        1649—1660  11 

Charles  2d.                      1660—1685  25 

James  2d.                         1685—1688  3 

A.  D.  1700     William  and  Mary .        1688—1702  14 

Anne.                              1702—1714  12 


TABLE.  135 

BRUNSWICK. 
From  1714  to  1838—134  years. 

George  1st.  1714 — 1727  reigned  13  years. 

George  2d.  1727—1760  33 

A.  D.  1800     George  3d.  1760—1820  60 

George  4th.  1820—18:30  10 

William  4th.  1830—1837  7 

Victoria.  1837— 


Table  of  the  Kings  of  France. 

The  Merovingian  Kings,  or  race  of  CLOVIS,  (the  Conqueror  of  Gaul,) 
reigned  250  years. 

CARLOVINGIAN. 
From  752  to  987—235  years. 

Pepin,  752 — 768  reigned  16  years. 

A.  D.  800  Charles  1st.—  768—814  46 

Louis  1st  814-840  26 

Charles  2d.—  840-876  36 

Louis  2d  876—879  3 

Louis  3d.—  879—884  5 

Charles  3d  884-888  4 

Eudes  888-898  10 

A.  D.  900  Charles  the  Simple—  898—922  24 

Robert  922-923  1 

Ralpho.—  923-936  13 

Louis  4th  936-954  18 

Lothaire  954-986  32 

Louis  5th  986-987  1 

CAPETIAN.     (Eldest  Branch.) 
From  987  to  1328—341  years. 

A.  D.  1000    Hugh  Capet          987—  996  reigned    9  years. 

Robert  2d.               996—1031  35 

Henry.—               1031-1060  29 

A.  D.I  100    Philip  1st.            1068-1108  48 

Louis  6th.             1108-1137  29 

Louis  7th.—         1137-1180  43 

A.  D.  1200    Philip  2d.             1180-1223  43 

Louis  8th.             1223-1226  3 

Louis  9th.—         1226-1270  44 

Philip  3d.              1270-1285  15 

A.  D.  1300    Philip  4th.           1285-1315  30 

Louis  10th.—        1315-1316  1 

Philip  5th.            1316-1322  6 

Charles  4th.          1322-1328  « 


136  TABLE. 

VALOIS,  (Capetian.) 
From  1328  to  1498—170  years. 

Philip  6th.—  1328—1350  reigned  22  years, 

John  the  Good.  1350—1364  14 

Charles  5th.  1364—1380  16 

A.  D.  1400     Charles  6th.  1380-1422  42 

Charles  7th.  1422-1461  39 

Louis  llth.—  1461—1483  22 

Charles  8th.  1483-1498  15 

ANGOULEME— Branch  of  Valois  Capetian. 
From  1498  to  1589—191  years. 

A.  D.  1500     Louis  12th,  (ori«"»o  1498— 1515  reigned  17  years. 
Francis  1st.—       1515-1547  32 

Henry  2d.  1547-1559  12 

Francis  2d.  1559-1560  1 

Charles  9th.  1560-1574  14 

Henry  3d.  1574-1589  15 

BOURBON,  (Capetian.) 
From  1589  to  1838 — 349  years.    B evolution,  and  Napoleon  off,  226  years. 

A.  D.  1600    Henry  4th.  1589-1610  reigned  21  years. 

Louis  13th.           1610-1643  33 

Louis  14th.            1643-1715  72 

Louis  15th.            1715-1774  59 

Louis  16th.            1774-1792  18 

French  Revolution  1792-1799  7 

A.  D.  1800  Napoleon's  career  1799-1814  16 
1814  Louis  18th.             1814-1824 
Charles  10th.         1824-1830 
Louis  Philip           1830. 


Emperors  of  Germany. 


HEREDITARY  EMPERORS. 
From  800  to  913—112  years. 

A.  M.  800     Charlemagne.  800—814  reigned  14  years, 

Louis  1st.—                814—840  26 

Lothaire  1st.                 840—855  15 

Louis  2d.—                 855—875  20 

Charles  2d.                  875—880  5 

Charles  3d.—              880—888  8 

Arnold                         888—900  12 

A.  D.  900    Louis  —                      900—912  12 


TABLE. 


137 


ELECTIVE  EMPERORS. 
Begin  A.D.  912. 


Franconia, 
Saxony, 

A. D.  1000 

Bavaria, 


Franconia, 
A.  D.  1100 

Saxony, 


Conrad  1st. 
Henry  1st. 
Otho  1st. 
Otho  2d. 
Otho  3d. 
Henry  2d.— 


Conrad  2d. 
Henry  3d. 
Henry  4th. 
Henry  5th. 
Lothaire2d. 


Swabiaand  f  Conrad  3d. 
Franconia  J  Frederick  1st. 

united.     ]  Henry  6th. 
A.D.  1200.  \_Philip. 
Brunswick    Otho  4th. 
Swabia  and  >  Frederick  2d. 
Franconia,  $  Conrad  4th. 


1st  Class. 

912 — 918  reigned    6  years. 

918—936  18 

936—972  36 

972—982  10 

982-1002  20 

1002—1024  22 

2d  Class. 

1024—1040  reigned  16  years. 

1040—1056  16 

1056—1106  50 

1106—1125  19 

1125—1138  13 

3d  Class. 

1138—1152  reigned  14  years. 

1152—1190  38 

1190—1198  8 

1198—1208  10 

1208—1212  4 

1212—1250  38 

1250—1254  4 


4th  Class. 

(FOREIGN  EMPERORS.) 

Holland,        William,  1250 — 1256  reigned    6  years. 

England,        Richard,     >  1256-1273  17 

Castile,          Alphonzo,  $ 

5th  Class. 
HAPSBURG  AUSTRIANS. 


'  Begin  A.D.  1273. 


Hapsburg,     Rodolph  1st. 
Nassau,         Adolphus, 
1300  Hapsburg,  Albert  1st. 
Luxemburgh,  Henry  7th. 
Hapsburg,     Frederick  3d.  C 
Bavaria,        and  Louis,       j 


1273—1291  reigned  18  years 


1291—1298 
1298—1308 
1308—1314 


7 
10 

6 


Elected  by 

different 

parties. 


1314—1347       33 


6th  Class. 
LUXEMBTJRGERS. 


Luxemburg,  Charles  4th. 
Wenceslaus, 
14CO  Bavaria,  Robert, 
Hungary,        Sigismund, 


1347—1378  reigned  31  years. 
1378—1400  22 

1400—1410  10 

1410—1438  28 


18 


138  TABLE. 


HOUSE  OF  AUSTRIA. 
From  1438  to  1745—307  years. 

Albert  2d.  1438—1440  reigned     2  years. 

Frederick,                1440—1493  53 

A.  D.  1500     Maximilian  1st.—     1493—1519  26 

Charles  5th.              1519—1558  39 

Ferdinand  1st.          1558 — 1564  6 

Maximilian  2d.—      1564—1576  12 

A.  D.  1600    RodolphZd.             1576—1612  36 

Matthias  —               1612—1619  7 

Ferdinand  2d.           1619—1637  18 

Ferdinand  3d.           1637—1658  21 

A.  D.  1700     Leopold  1st.             1658—1705  47 

Joseph,                      1705—1711  6 

Charles  6th.—         1711—1741  30 

Bavaria,         Charles  7th.—          1741—1745  4 

LORRAINE. 

From  1745  to  1838—73  years 

Francis  1st.  1745 — 1765  reigned  20  years. 

Joseph  2d.                  1765—1790  25 

Leopold,                    1790—1792  2 
A.  D.  1800     Francis  2e?,  1792,  became  first  Emperor  of  Austria  1802. 


Kings  of  Spain. 

After  the  union  ofArragon  and  Castile,  by  the  marriage  of  Ferdinand 

and  Isabella. 

AUSTRIAN— 1520.  BOURBON— 1700. 

Charles  5th,  or  1st.  Philip  5th. 

Philip  2d.  Ferdinand  6th. 

Philip  3d.  Charles  3d. 

Philip  4th.  Charles  4th. 

Charles  2d.  Ferdinand  7th. 


Kings  of  Russia,  from  1700. 

Peter  the  Great.  Peter. 

Catherine.  Catherine. 

Peter  —  Paul.— 

Anne.  Alexander. 

Ivan  —  Nicholas. — 


TABLE. 


139 


Centurial  Monarchs  of  England,  France,  and 
Germany. 

KINGS  OF  ENGLAND. 

800  Egbert,  1st  Saxon  Monarch. 

900  Edward  the  Elder,  1st  Saxon  Edward. 

1000  (Edward)  Canute,  1st  Danish  Monarch. 

1100  Henry  First. 

1200  Richard  First. 

1300  Edward  First. 

1400  Henry.      1st  Lancaster. 

1500  Henry  7th.     First  Tudor. 

1600  James  1st.     First  Stewart. 

1700  William  3d. 

1800  George  3d. 


KINGS  OF  FRANCE. 

800  Charlemagne. 

900  Charles  the  Simple. 

1000  Hugh  Capet. 

1100  Philip  1st. 

1200  Philip  2d. 

1300  Philip  4th, 

1400  Charles,  middle  Valois. 

1500  Louis  12th.  middle  invader 

of  Italy. 

1600  Henry  4th.     1st  Bourbon. 

1700  Louis  14th. 

1800  Louis  18th  and  Napoleon. 


EMPERORS  OF  GERMANY. 

Charlemagne. 

Conrad  1st.  first  elective  Emperor. 

Henry  2d.   first  Bavarian. 

Henry  5th.  last  Franconian. 

Philip  First. 

Albert  1st. 

Robert  First. 

Maximilian  1st. 

Rodolph  2d. 
Leopold  1st. 
Francis  2d. 


APPENDIX. 

Important  Events  of  Ancient  History,  in  which  we 
find  a  coincidence  of  dates. 


A.M.         B.C. 

2000 
3500 


2250 
3750 


2000  Sacred  History  begins  with  Abraham,  f  ,  enn 
500  Profane  History,  {  150°  years  aPart' 

750  Jacob's  children  sojourning  in  Canaan,  (  ,_AA 

250  Punic  Wars,  '}  1500  years  apart. 

2500     1500  Moses,  f  1Rftft 

4000  Birth  of  Christ,  {  150°  years  aPart' 

2083     1917  Abraham,  aged  75,  crossed  the  Eu-  f" 

phrates  into  the  Promised  Land, 
3283       717  Abraham's  descendants  carried  cap-  <  1200  years  apart. 

live  by  the  Assyrians  over  the  same  1 

river, 

2298     1702  Jacob  removes  into  Egypt,  ( 

3398      602  Daniel  and  many  Jews  taken  captive  <  1100  years  apart. 
by  the  Babylonians,  { 


of  Canaan, 

2553     1447  Conquest  of  Canaan,  C 

3029      971  Dismemberment  of  the  kingdom  of  <  476  years  apart.  . 
Israel,  f 

3029      971  Dismemberment,  5  471  vears  anart 

3500      500  Close  of  sacred  history,  f  * 

3500      500  Close  of  sacred  history,  C 

3939        61  Final  subjection  of  the  Jews  to  the  <  439  years  apart. 
Romans,  f 


Periods  occupying  a  century. 

A.M. 

3456  to  3555  Struggle  between  the  Greeks  and  Persians. 

3555      3660  Struggle  among  the  Greek  states  for  supremacy. 

3650      3750  Macedonian  career. 

3750      3858  Roman  career  of  conquest. 

3858      3973  Period  of  Roman  internal  convulsions. 


142 


APPENDIX. 


B.C. 
1620 


1220 


KINGS  OF  ASSYRIA. 

Pul, 

Sardanapalus, — 
Tiglath-Pileser, 
Shalmanezer, — 
Sennacherib, 
Esarhaddon, — 
Nebuchadnezzar, 
3279  Saracus.— 


KINGS  OP  BABYLON. 

Nabonassar, 
Merodach  Baladin, — 
Nabopolassar, — 
Nebuchadnezzar, — 
Evil  Merodach, 
3466  Belshazzar.— 


KINGS  OF  PERSIA. 
Arbaces, 
Dejoces, 
Phraortes, — 
Cyaxares  1st, 
Astyages, 
Cyaxares  2d, — 
Cyrus, 
Cambyses, 
Darius  1st, 
Xerxes, 

Artaxerxes  1st, 
Darius  2d, — 
Artaxerxes  2d, 
Artaxerxes  3d, 
3673  Darius  3d.— 


721 


534 


327 


A.M. 


KINGS  OF  MACEDON. 


3200  Ceraunus, 

Alexander, — 

Perdiccas, 
f  Archelaus, — 

Philip, 

Amyntas, — 

Philip, 

Alexander, — 
Empire  divided. 

Cassander  and  his  three 

sons, 
Philip, 
Antipater, 
Alexander, — 

Demetrius  Poliorcetes, 

Lysimachus  &  Pyrrhus, 

Lysimachus  alone,  con- 
quered by  Seleucus, 
conquered  by  Ptole- 
my Ceraunus,  de- 
throned by  Gauls, 
Antigonus,  son  of  Deme- 
trius Poliorcetes, 

Demetrius, 

Antigonus, 

Philip, 
3836  Perseus. 


B.C. 

800 


Tables  of  Jlncient  Kings. 

For  repeating  and  committing  the  names  of  kings,  they  are  divided 
into  portions  indicated  by  a  dash  at  the  end  of  each  portion. 

KINGS  OF  TROY. 
A.M. 

2380  Scamander, 

Teucer, 

Dardanus, 

Ericthonius, 

Tros, 

Ilus, 

Laomedon, 
2780  Priam. 


164 


KINGS  OF  ROME. 
3250  Romulus,  750 

Numa  Pompilius, 

Tullus  Hostilius, — 

Ancus  Marcius, — 

Tarquin  1st, 

Servius  Tullius, 
3500  Tarquin  the  Proud.—    500 

KINGS  OF  LYDIA. 
Candaules, 
Gyges, 
Ardys, — 
Sadyattes, 
Halyattes, 
3456  Croesus.—  644 


A  PPE  NDIX. 


143 


A.M. 

3973 


KINGS  OF  SYRIA. 


Seleucus  Nicator, 
Antiochus  Soter, 
Antiochus  Theos, 
Seleucus  Callinicus, 
Seleucus  Ceraunus, 
jf  [  Antiochus  the  Great, 
Seleucus  Philopater, 
Antiochus  Epiphanes, 
Antiochus  Eupator, 
Demetrius  Soter, 
Alexander  Balus, 
Demetrius  Nicator, 
Antiochus  Theos, 
Diodotus  Tryphon, 
Antiochus  Sidetes, 
Alexander  Zebina, 
Antiochus  Grypus, 
Antiochus  of  Cyzicus, 
Seleucus, 

Antiochus  Eusebes, 
Antiochus  llth, 
Philip, 


B.C. 

427 


A.M.  B.C. 

Demetrius  Euccerus, 
Antiochus  Dionysius, 
Tigranes,  king  of  Ar- 

menia, 
3939  Antiochus  Asiaticus.        61 


PTOLEMYS  OF  EGYPT. 


3673 


3973 


Ptolemy  Lagus,  427 

Ptolemy  Philadelphus, 

Ptolemy  Evergetes, 

Ptolemy  Philopater, 

Ptolemy  Epiphanes, 

Ptolemy  Philometer, 

Ptolemy  Physcon, 

Ptolemy  Lathyrus, 

Ptolemy  Alexander,  1st, 

Cleopatra, 

Ptolemy  Alexander  2d, 

Ptolemy  Auletes, 

Berenice, 

Ptolemy  &  Cleopatra, 

Cleopatra  conquered.       27 


Roman  Emperors. 


1st  Class — Julian  Family. 

Julius  Caesar,  (Dictator,) 
Augustus  " 
Tiberius  " 
Caligula  " 
Claudius  " 
Nero 

2d  Class — Scattered  Emperors,  Sf 
all  crowned  in  the  same  year, 
Galba, 
Otho, 

Vitellius. 

3d  Class — Flavian  Family. 
Vespasian, 
Titus, 
Domitian. 

4th  Class — Five  good  Emperors. 
Nerva, 
Trajan, 
Adrian, 
Antoninus  Pius, 


Marcus  Aurelius  Antoninus, 
Commodus  belongs  to  the 
family  of  the  Antonines,  but 
did  not  inherit  their  cha- 
racter. 

5th  Class — Five  Emperors  crown- 
ed in  one  year. 
Pertinax,  at  Rome, 
Julian  Didius,  at  Rome, 
Severus,  on  the  Danube, 
Niger,  in  the  East, 
Albinus,  in  the  West. 

6th  Class — Family  of  Severut. 
Severus, 
Caracalla, 
Geta, 
Macrinus, 
Alexander  Severus. 

7th  Class — Maximinus    and    hit 

competitors. 
Maximinus, 


144 


A  PPE  NDIX. 


Gordian, 

Gordian, 

Maximus, 

Balbinus, 

Gordian. 

8th  Class —  Those  under  whom  the 
Empire  fell  to  pieces. 

Philip, 

Decius, 

yEmilianus, 

Gallus, 

Valerian, 

Gallienus. 

These  are  little    more 

than  emperors  in  Italy,  ac- 
knowledged by  the  senate. 
9th  Class — 1st  Class  of  Imperial 
Restorers. 

Claudius, 

Aurelian, 

Tacitus, 

Probus, 

Carus. 

These  did  not  reign  long 

enough  to  complete  their 

work. 

10th  Class— 2d  Class  of  Restor- 
ers, or  Imperial  Colleagues 
and  CtBsars. 

DIOCLETIAN,  Eastern  Au- 
gustus, 

Galerius  his  Casar. 
MAXIMIAN,    Western   Au- 
gustus, 
Constantius  his  Ccesar, 

llth  Class — Constantine  and  his 

rivals. 
Severus, 
Maximian, 
Maxentius, 
Galerius, 


Maximinus, 
Licinius, 
Constantine  victorious. 

12th  Class — Constantine  the 
Great  $p  his  three  sons. 
Constantine — in  the  W. 
Canstans — in  the  middle, 
Constantius — in  the  E. 
Julian — sole  emperor. 

13th  Class — Valentinian  Family. 
Valentinian — middle  &W. 
Valens,  E. 
Valentinian  3d, 
Gratian. 

14th  Class — Theodosian  Family. 
Theodosius  the  Great,  sole 
emperor, 

Honorius  in,  the  E. 
Arcadius  in  the  W. 

After   this    the    empire 
goes  rapidly  to  destruction. 

15th  Class — Nobodies,  of  whom 
Romulus  Augustulus,  476, 
is  the  last. 

A.D.  100  Trajan. 

200  Severus. 

300  Constantine. 

400  Theodosius'    death- 
empire  divided. 

500  Settlement  of  the  Bar- 
barians. 

600  Gregory  the  Great,  St. 
Augustine  and  Maho- 
met. 

700  Africa  and  Spain  con- 
quered by  the  Saracens. 

800  Charlemagne  attempts 
to  restore  the  Western 
Roman  empire. 


A.D.      1  In  the  reign  of  Augustus  the  empire  firm  and  unbroken. 

250  Broken  in  fragments.  Thirty  tyrants  or  usurpers.  Franks  and  Alleman- 
ni  on  the  Rhine,  Ostrogoths  and  Visigoths  north  of  the  Black  Sea, 
ready  to  pour  down  upon  the  empire. 

500  The  Western  empire  completely  occupied  by  German  savages. 
750  Pepin.    Popes  and  Bagdad. 

Pepin,  the  founder  of  the  Franks,  or  Clovingian  empire.    Popes  become 

temporal  princes. 
Bagdad  the  seat  of  the  Saracen  empire  then  in  all  its  splendour. 


SCHOOLS  OF  PHILOSOPHY. 

FIRST  PERIOD.— FROM  THALES  TO  SOCRATES. 

Ionic,  Pythagoric,  Eleatic,  Atomic  Schools. 

IONIC  SCHOOL, 

Founded  by  Thales  of  Miletus,  600  B.C.  He  was  the  first  who  dis- 
cussed on  principles  of  reason  the  origin  of  the  world.  Water  was, 
in  his  opinion,  the  original  element  and  spirit,  the  impulsive  principle. 
His  great  moral  maxim  was  Know  thyself. 

Anaximan-      Anaximander,  who  flourished  at  Miletus  about  610  B.C., 

der-       taught  that  the  Infinite  and  the  Divine  were  the  primary  ele- 

B.c'.GMi4   ments.     It  is  not,  however,  decided  whether  by  the  Divine 

he  understood  an  essence  distinct  from  the  elements,  or  a 

subtle  quality  intermediate  between  water  and  air. 

Pherecydes.      Pherecydes  of  Syros,  his  contemporary,  though  his  junior, 

A.M.  3394.  taught  the  same  doctrine  in  the  main ;  he  recognized,  ho\v- 

'  '     '    ever,  as  the  principle  of  all  things,  Jupiter  or  Ether,   Time 

and  the  earth.     He  appears  to  have  believed  in  the  immortality  of  the 

soul.     Anaximander  and  Pherecydes  were  the  first  who  committed 

their  doctrines  to  writing. 

Anaximenes.     Anaximenes  of  Miletus  flourished  about  557  B.C.     He 

A.M.  3447.  was  the  disciple  of  Anaximander,  but  limited  the  Infinite  of 

B.C.  557.    ^s  master  as  tj.je  prj[mjtive  element  to  the  Air,  from  certain 

observations  on  the  origin  of  things  and  the  nature  of  the  soul. 

Hermotimus.     Hermotimus,   of  Clazomenae,  is   said   to  have  held  the 

doctrine  of  a  Superior  Intelligence  as  the  author  of  nature. 

Anaxagoras.     Anaxagoras,  born  at  Clazomenae,  500  B.C.     The  great 

dogma  of  this  philosopher  was  of  an  intellectual  principle, 

from  the  inadequacy  of  those  systems  which  recognized  only  material 

causes.     He  acknowledged  the  existence  of  primeval  chaos,  which  he 

believed  to  be  surrounded  by  air  and  ether,  and  to  have  been  put  in 

motion  by  the  Intelligent  Principle.     This  intelligence  he  considered 

the  active  and  creative  cause,  endowed  with  spontaneous  energy,  but 

refined  from  all  matter,  pervading1,   defining,  and  limiting  all  things, 

and  consequently  the  PRINCIPLE  or  LIFE.     In  his  forty- fifth  year  he 

settled  himself  at  Athens,  where  he  became  the  master  and  the  friend 

of  Pericles.     His  doctrines,  however,  exposed  him  to  the  charge  of 

atheism,  in  consequence  of  which  he  was  obliged  to  flee  from  that  city, 

and  retire  to  Lampsacus,  where  he  ended  his  days. 

Diogenes.       Diogenes,  of  Apollonia  in  Crete,  the  disciple  of  Anaximenes, 

A.M.  3538.  taught  after  that  philosopher  that  the  fundamental  principle 

B-C- 472>    Was  air,  but  blended  with  it  the  great  dogma  of  Anaxagoras, 

by  imputing  to  it  an  Intellectual  Energy.  He  flourished  about  4T2  B.C. 

Archelaus,  the  Milesian,  about  460  B.C.,  a  disciple  of 

ArCIJclcLUK  1*1  »  11  11        I_  * 

A.M.  3540.  Anaxagoras,  and  resident  at  Athens,  taught  that  an  things 
B.C.  460.    wefe  evoived  from  chaos  by  the  operation  of  the  principles 

19 


146  APPENDIX. 

of  heat  and  cold,  ovjire  and  water,  and  that  man  had  gradually  separat- 
ed himself  from  the  herd  of  inferior  animals,  thus  making  the  opera- 
tions of  the  mind  material.  His  moral  philosophy  taught  that  the 
notions  of  right  and  wrong  are  not  intrinsic,  but  conventional. 

The  great  method  which  distinguished  the  philosophers  of  the  Ionic 
school  may  be  termed  experimental,  from  their  mode  of  solving  the 
first  problem  of  philosophy  concerning  the  origin  or  elementary  prin- 
ciple of  the  world. 

PYTHAGORIC,  OR  ITALIC  SCHOOL, 
Founded  at  Croto  in  Italy,  about  527  B.C. 

Pythagoras.  Pythagoras,  the  founder  of  this  school,  ascribed  an  occult 
A.M.  3473.  power  to  words  and  numbers,  and  looked  upon  the  science  of 
arithmetic  as  containing  the  essence  of  all  philosophical 
knowledge.  Hence,  his  school  has  also  been  called  the  Mathematical. 
Numbers  were  defined  by  him  as  the  principle  of  all  things ;  and  the 
ten  elementary  numbers  which  contain  a  complete  system  of  enumera- 
tion, contain  also  the  elements  of  a  perfect  system  of  nature.  Accord- 
ing to  the  Pythagoreans,  the  world  was  an  harmonious  whole,  consist 
ing  of  ten  great  bodies  revolving  around  a  common  centre,  in  confor- 
mity with  certain  harmonious  laws.  The  centre,  or  central  fire,  the 
sun,  was  the  most  perfect  object  in  nature,  from  which  the  soul,  also  a 
number,  emanates,  resembling  it  by  its  immortality  and  its  constant  ac- 
tivity, capable  of  combining  with  any  body,  and  passing  successively 
through  several.  This  metempsychosis  appears  to  have  been  connect- 
ed in  Plato's  mind  with  moral  retribution.  In  this  system  the  stars 
were,  of  course,  divinities,  and  man,  with  even  the  inferior  animals, 
participated  in  the  divine  nature.  Between  gods  and  men  the  Pytha- 
goreans supposed  an  intermediate  race  of  demons,  to  whose  agency 
were  ascribed,  in  a  great  measure,  dreams  and  portents,  the  subjects  of 
divination.  To  the  same  school  are  due  the  first  attempts  at  analysis 
of  the  operations  and  faculties  of  the  mind.  The  understanding  and 
intellectual  faculties  they  placed  in  the  brain,  the  will  and  the  appetite 
in  the  heart.  They  were,  perhaps,  the  first  also  who  ennobled  the 
idea  of  Deity  by  the  attribution  of  moral  qualities,  such  as  truth  and  be- 
neficence. The  society  of  Pythagoreans  established  in  Italy  contem- 
plated the  political  as  well  as  the  moral  improvement  of  society,  in  con- 
sequence of  which,  the  fraternity  was  suppressed,  or  rather  dispersed, 
in  something  less  than  thirty  years,  about  510  B.C. 

ELEATIC  SCHOOL. 

The  fundamental  doctrine  of  this  school  was  the  rejection  of  expe- 
rience, and  the  deriving  of  all  knowledge  from  the  mind  itself  as  the 
only  foundation  of  truth. 
v      ,,  Xenophanes,  of  Colophon,  the  contemporary  of  Pvthag-o- 

Acnopnanes.  ft  •   i      j  i  •          i  .r       j  t_  •         i        i        -n  i  •          TT   i  •      •     •• « 

ras,  established  himself  and  his  school  at  laia  or  Vena,  in  JVlag- 
na  Grecia.  Adhering  to  the  old  doctrine,  that  nothing  proceeds  from 
nothing,  he  argued  that  nothing  could  pass  from  non-existence  into1 
existence.  Hence,  whatever  exists  must  have  ever  existed,  and  be  im- 
mutable. God  is  one  and  unalterable,  neither  finite  nor  infinite,  nei- 
ther moveable  nor  immoveable ;  he  is  all  hearing,  all  thought,  all 


SCHOOLS     OF     PHILOSOPHY.  147 

sight,  and  his  form  is  spherical.  Xenophanes  was  the  first  one  who 
divested  the  Deity  of  the  gross  images  under  which  he  had  before  been 
represented. 

Parmenidcs.      Parmenides  of  Elia,  about  460  B.C.,  taught  a  modification 
V/''^0>  °f  l^e  same  doctrine,   maintaining  that  the  understanding 

1>.O.  4uU*  i  i   i  /»  i        • 

alone  was  capable  of  contemplating  truth,  while  the  senses 
afforded  but  a  deceptive  appearance  of  it. 

Meiisus.        Melissus,  of  Sarnos,  about  444  B.C.,  was  the  boldest,  and, 
ABctif'  PernaPs'  tne  ablest  master  of  this  school,  with  the  exception 
of  Zeno.     He  carried  his  idealism  so  far  as  to  deny  that  our 
senses  present  us  any  thing  more  than  appearances,  which  are  alto- 
gether beyond  the  limits  of  real  knowledge. 

Zeno.          Zeno,  of  Elia,  the  disciple  of  Parmenides,  460  B.C.,  may 
•^M-SS-IO.  be  considered  as  the  great  master,  if  not  the  founder  of  this 

U.v.  1OU»  i|  ** 

school. 

ATOMIC  SCHOOL. 

Leucippus,  an  Ionian,  probably  of  Miletus,  who  flourish- 
e(*  about  50°  B-C-'  originated  the  Atomic  theory.  This 
theory  was  carried  out  by  his  great  disciple  Democritus. 
Democritus.  He  maintained  the  impossibility  of  infinite  division,  suppos- 
ing the  atoms  originally  similar,  to  be  endowed  with  certain 
properties,  such  as  impenetrability  and  density,  proportioned  to  their 
volume.  He  referred  every  active  and  passive  affection  to  motion 
caused  by  impact,  limited  by  the  principle  that  only  like  can  act  on 
like.  From  the  endless  multiplicity  of  atoms  have  resulted  the  worlds 
of  the  universe.  The  soul,  in  his  doctrine,  consists  of  globular  atoms 
of  fire,  which  impart  movement  to  the  body.  Maintaining  through- 
out his  atomic  theory,  Democritus  introduced  the  hypothesis  of  image?, 
—a  species  of  emanation  from  external  objects,  which  make  an  impres- 
sion on  our  senses,  and  from  the  influence  of  which  he  reduced  sensa- 
tion and  thoughts.  He  is  vulgarly  called  the  laughing  philosopher. 

HERACLITUS  AND  EMPEDOCLES. 

These  philosophers,  though  flourishing  in  the  first  period,  can  harc1- 
ly  be  referred  to  any  of  the  above  schools  of  philosophy.  By  birth, 
however,  the  former,  being  an  Ephesian,  belonged  to  the  Ionian.  The 
results  of  his  reflections  were  given  in  a  volume,  which,  on  account  of 
its  obscurity,  obtained  for  him  the  name  of  the  Dark.  With  him  fire. 
was  the  foundation  of  all  things,  and  the  universal  agent.  He  mair- 
tained  the  universe  to  be  neither  the  work  of  gods  nor  men,  but  a  liv- 
ing fire,  with  alternations  of  decay  and  resuscitation.  The  soul,  by  its 
consanguinity  to  the  Divine  mind,  according  to  him,  is  capable,  by  di- 
straction, of  recognizing  the  universal  and  the  true;  whereas,  by  the 
exercise  of  the  organs  of  the  senses,  it  perceiveth  only  what  is  individ- 
ual and  variable.  He  is  vulgarly  called  the  crying  philosopher. 
Empedocies  Empedocles,  of  Agrigentum,  about  441  B.C.,  or  perhaps 
A.M.  3558.'  earlier,  has  been  called  both  the  disciple  of  Pythagoras  and 
B.C. 442.  parmeni(jes.  He  defined  the  soul  to  consist  in  a  combina- 
tion of  the  four  elements,  which  thus,  by  the  analogy  subsisting  be- 
tween the  subject  and.  the  object,  possessed  itself  of  a  knowledge  of  ex- 
ternal things. 


148  APPENDIX. 

SOPHISTS. 

These  were  a  class  of  men  who  may  rather  be  considered  as  Dialec- 
ticians and  Rhetoricians  than  philosophers.     Their  aim  was  to  distin- 
guish themselves  by  a  show  of  universal  knowledge,  by  solving  the 
most  intricate,  fanciful,  and  useless  questions  ;  and  by  pretended  instruc- 
tion in  the  art  of  persuasion,  they  sought  to  amass  inordinate  fortunes. 
With  this  view  they  had  contrived  certain   logical  tricks  to  perplex 
their  antagonists  ;  and  without  possessing  in  the  least  degree  the  spirit 
of  philosophy,   they  maintained   all  sorts  of  philosophical  theories. 
Gorgias.    Thus  the  celebrated  orator  Gorgias,  of  Leontium,  a  disciple 
A.M.  3564.  of  Empedocles,  440  B.C.,  endeavoured  to  demonstrate  that 

B.C.  440.  .1-  i?  •  t 

nothing  really  exists. 

Protagoras.       Protagoras,  of  Abdera,  maintained  that  every  way  of  con- 
sidering a  subject  has  its  opposite,  and  that  there  is  as  much 
truth  on   one  side  as  the   other.     He  was  banished  from  Athens  for 
atheism,   and  died  408  B.C.      The  other  most  celebrated 
B.C.  408.   sophists  of  this  period  were  Prodicus  of  Ceos,   Diagoras  of 
Melos,  and  Critias  of  Athens,  the  enemy  of  Socrates. 

SECOND  PERIOD. 

Socrates.        Socrates,  the  founder  of  a  new  era,  though  not  of  a  particu- 

A.M.3534.  lar  school  in  philosophy,  was  born  at  Athens,  470  B.C.,  and 
was  the  son  of  a  sculptor  named  Sophroniscus,  and  of  Phae- 
nareta  a  midwife.  Rejecting,  in  a  great  measure,  the  physical  specu- 
lations of  the  former  period,  he  sought,  as  the  principal  object  of  his 
philosophy,  the  attainment  of  correct  and  popular  ideas  concerning 
moral  and  religious  obligation  ;  concerning  the  end  of  man's  being,  and 
the  perfection  of  his  nature.  The  enmity  which  he  brought  upon  him- 
self by  his  ridicule  of  mysticism  and  philosophical  charlatanism,  at 

AM3C04   'ast  occasioned  his  death  by  the  judgment  of  the  five  hun- 

B.C:  400.'  dred,  400  B.C. 

The  PARTIAL  SCHOOLS  among  the  Socratics  were  those  of  the 

CYNICS, 

Established  by  Antisthenes  the  Athenian,  and  of  which  the  principal 
disciple  was  Diogenes  of  Sinope.     The 

CYRENAICS, 

Aristippus.  By  Aristippus  of  Cyrene,  who  made  the  summum  bonum  to 
"Vc'.-siot'  consist  in  enjoyment — good  taste  and  freedom  of  mind. 
A.M.  3704.      Aristippus,  his  grandson,  was  the  first  to   develope  on 
B.C.  3oo.   these  principles  the  complete  system  of  self-indulgence. 
Theodoras.       Theodorus  of  Cyrene,  taking,  like  his  predecessor,  sensa- 
tion for  the  basis  of  his  doctrine,  ended  by  denying  the  exis- 
tence of  all  objects  of  perception,  and  thus  opened  a  way  for  the  scep- 
tic school,  framing  a  system  of  indifferentism,  which  excluded  all  differ- 
ence of  right  or  wrong  in  morals  and  in  religion,  and  assuming  plea- 
sure as  the  final  end  of  existence.     This  branch  of  the  Cyrenaic  school 
was  called  the  Theodorian. 


SCHOOLS     OF     PHILOSOPHY.  149 

THE  SCEPTICS 

Pvrrho     Arose  in  part  out  of  the  Cyrenaic. — Their  master  was  Pyr- 

A.M.  3664.  rho  of  Elis,  340  B.C.     His  most  illustrious  disciple  was 

340'    Timon  of  Phlius,  about  272  B.C.     He  maintained  that  the 

Timon.     Doctrine  of  the  Dogmatics  was  founded  on  mere  hypothesis — 

that  the  objects  of  their  speculations  do  not  come  within  the  reach  of 

certain  knowledge — that  all  science  is  to  be  accounted  vain  as  not 

contributing  to  happiness. 

THE  MEGARIC, 

Founded  by  Euclid  of  Megara,  400  B.C.,  whose  principal  object  was 

the  cultivation  of  DIALECTICS,  on  the  principles  of  Socrates  and  the 

Eleatics.     The  other  philosophers  of  this  school  were  Philo,  and  others 

of  not  much  note,  with  Stilpo,  who  derives  his  principal  re- 

B'c'aoo4'  putati°n  fr°m  his  dogma,  made  afterwards  so  important  by 

his  disciple  Zeno,  viz.  that  wisdom  consists  in  apathy. 
The  schools  of  ELIS  and  ERETRIA  were  founded  by  Phaedo  and  Men- 
edemus,  and  their  doctrines  were  those  of  the  school  of  Megara. 

Greater  systems  proceeding  from  the  Socratics. 

The  school  of  the  ACADEMY,  founded  by  Plato  on  the  systems  of  the 
Rationalists,  and  another  by  Aristotle  on  those  of  the  Empirics.  The 
former  arguing  from  the  phenomena  of  the  mind  or  world  within,  the 
latter  from  those  of  the  world  without.  From  the  CYNIC  school  sprung 
the  STOICS,  and  from  the  CYRENAICS  the  EPICUREANS,  the  opposition  to 
which  produced  the  SCEPTICISM  of  the  latter  Academy. 

PLATO 

A.M.  3574.  Was  born  at  Athens,  430  B.C.,  of  the  family  of  Codrus  and 
B.C.  430.   g0jon<     jje  was  the  foun(Jer  of  the  ACADEMY,  the  most  fa- 
mous school  of  Greek  philosophy,  and  died  348  B.C.     He  held  the 
doctrine  of  the  existence  in  the  soul  of  certain  innate  ideas,  which  form 
the  basis  of  our  conceptions,  and  the  elegance  of  our  practical  resolu- 
tions.    To  Plato  is  due  the  first  attempt  at  the  construction  of  a  philo- 
sophical language,  and  the  division  of  philosophy  into  LOGIC,  (Dialec- 
tics,) METAPHYSICS,  (Physiology  or  Physics,)  and  MORALS.     Plato  de- 
fined virtue  to  be  the  imitation  of  God,  or  the  effort  of  man  to  attain  to 
a  resemblance  of  his  original.     VIRTUE  is  one,  but  compounded  of  four 
elements — wisdom,  constancy,  temperance  and  justice.      BEAUTY  he 
considered  to  be  the  sensible  representation  of  moral  and  physical  per- 
fection, consequently,  it  is  one  with  truth  and  goodness,  and  inspires 
A  M  3665  l°ve'  which  leads  to  virtue.  The  principal  disciples  of  Plato 
B'.C!  339.' "were  Speusippus,  his  nephew  and  successor,  died  339  B.C. 
Xenocrates  of  Chalcedon,  who  taught  the  doctrines  of  Plato 
B.ci  lu.'  m tne  language  of  the  Pythagoreans,  and  who  died  314  B.C., 
and  Grantor  of  Soloe,   who  adhered  most  nearly  to  the  doc- 
trines of  his  master.     To  these  must  be  added  the  celebrated  master 
of  the  New  Academy — 

ARISTOTLE 

A.M.  3620.  Was  born  at  Stagira,  384  B.C.     In  343  having  been  the  dis- 
4   ciple  of  Plato,  he  became  the  preceptor  of  Alexander,  and  in 


150 


APPENDIX. 


A.M.  3670.  334  he  founded  a  new  school  in  the  walks  of  the  Lyceum, 
'  whence  his  school  was  called  Peripatetic.  He  died  in 

A.M.  3682.  322,  at  Chalcis  in  Eubcea,  having,  as  it  is  supposed,  swal- 
lowed  poison  on  being  obliged  to  leave  Athens  under  suspicion 
of  atheism.  He  rejected  the  doctrine  of  ideas,  maintaining  that  all  our 
impressions  and  thoughts,  and  even  the  highest  efforts  of  understand- 
ing,  are  the  fruit  of  experience.  Instead  of  following  his  master  in 
reasoning  from  the  universal  to  the  particular,  he  always  infers  the 
former  from  the  latter.  Aristotle  comprised  within  the  limits  of  phi- 
losophy all  the  sciences,  rational,  empirical,  or  mixed,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  history,  and  divided  it  as  a  whole  into  logic,  physics  and  ethics, 
or  into  speculative  and  practical.  Speculative  philosophy  is  divided 
into  physics,  cosmology,  psychology  and  theology.  Practical  philoso- 
phy comprehends  ethics,  politics  and  economy.  The  most  distinguish- 
ed of  the  immediate  followers  of  Aristotle  were  Theophrastus,  his  fa- 

AM.  3684.  vourite  disciple,  Eudemus  of  Rhodes,    Dicaearchus,  Strato 

B.C.  320.  Of  Lampsacus,  and  Demetrius  Phalerius. 

EPICURUS, 

A.M.  sec?.  Born  near  Athens,  337  B.C.  According  to  him,  philosophy 
B.C.  337.  Directs  us  to  happiness  by  means  of  reason,  consequently, 
ethics  form  a  principal  part  of  his  system,  while  physics  are  secondary, 
and  dialectics  hold  the  lowest  place.  He  regarded  the  summum  bonum 
to  be  a  state  exempt  from  suffering,  the  satisfaction  of  all  our  ne- 
cessary and  natural  desires.  The  pleasure  and  pains  of  the  mind  ex- 
ceed those  of  the  body.  To  attain  happiness,  therefore,  it  is  necessary 
to  make  a  choice,  and  to  rule  our  desires  by  help  of  reason  and  free- 
will ;  consequently,  prudence,  is  the  first  of  virtues,  and  next,  modera- 
tion and  justice.  Virtue  having  no  value  but  for  the  conse- 
quences which  attend  her,  viz.  her  inseparable  alliance  with  enjoy- 
ment. His  physical  system  was  founded  on  the  Atomic  school  of  De- 
mocritus,  whence,  in  his  theology,  he  was  reproached  with  atheism, 
though  he  himself  avowed  the  contrary. 

ZENO  AND  THE  STOICS. 

A.M.3664.  Zeno  was  born  about  340  B.C.,  at  Cittium  in  Cyprus,  and 
after  having  attended  the  various  Socratic  schools,  became 
himself  the  founder  of  a  new  one  in  the  Porch  (Stoa)  at  Athens,  oppos- 
ed particularly  to  the  doctrines  of  the  Sceptics  and  the  Epicureans, 
and  which  became  memorable  for  its  rigid  principles  of  morality,  for 
the  influence  it  possessed  in  the  world,  and  for  its  resistance  to  vice  and 
tyranny.  According  to  the  Stoics,  (so  called  from  Stoa,)  philosophy 
is  the  science  of  human  perfection,  which  develops  itself  in  THOUGHT, 
KNOWLEDGE  and  ACTION.  Its  three  subdivisions  are  LOGIC,  PHI- 
LOSOPHY, and  ETHICS,  the  latter  being  the  most  important.  In  the 
establishment  of  these  principles,  the  Stoics  followed  the  system  of  em- 
piricism. The  logic  of  the  Stoics  was  of  wider  application  than  that 
of  Aristotle,  comprehending  GRAMMAR,  RHETORIC,  and  even  PSYCHO- 
LOGY.  Their  physiology  was  founded  in  a  measure  upon  that  of  He- 
raclitus,  and  Chrysippus.  One  of  the  most  illustrious  disciples  of  the 
school,  deduced  from  the  application  of  this  theory  to  theology  a  sys- 


SCHOOLS     OP     PHILOSOPHY.  151 

tern  of  OPTIMISM,  and  an  attempt  to  explain  the  Mythological  Polythe- 
ism. The  soul  was  with  them  a  portion  of  the  soul  of  the  world,  but 
corporeal  and  perishable :  and  Cleanthes  and  Panetius  went  so  far  as 
to  endeavour  to  establish  its  mortality  by  proof.  The  grand  formulary 
of  the  Stoics  was  to  live  conformably  to  the  law  of  right  reason,  or,  to 
live  conformably  to  nature.  Their  morality  was  built  upon  the  funda- 
mental attributes  of  order,  legality  and  reason — as  the  only  means  by 
which  man  can  attain  to  the  end  of  his  being — VIRTUE.  Their  funda- 
mental practical  principles  were — that  virtue  is  the  only  absolute  good; 
vice  the  only  positive  evil ;  that  virtue  is  founded  on  prudence,  while 
vice  is  an  inconsistent  mode  of  action,  resulting  from  the  neglect  or  the 
perversion  of  reason,  accompanied  by  evil  passions,  which  are  voluntary 
and  blameable  ;  that  virtue  is  one  and  vice  is  one,  neither  of  them  being 
capable  of  augmentation  or  diminution;  the  former  being  manifested 
under  four  principal  characters,  prudence,  constancy,  temperance  and 
justice,  with  a,  corresponding  number  of  vices.  That  the  virtuous  man 
is  exempt  from  passions,  though  not  insensible  to  them,  and  that  these 
ought  to  be  not  moderated  but  eradicated. 

As  a  consequence  of  the  unity  of  virtue  and  vice,  the  Stoics  could 

admit  of  but  two  descriptions  of  men,  viz.  the  good  and  the  bad.     From 

the  doctrine  of  absolute  liberty  they  were  obliged  to  acknowledge  man's 

right,  as  a  part  of  his  absolute  freedom,  to  deprive  himself  of  life. 

A.M.  3742.  Zeno  died  about  262  B.C.,  having  taught  in  public  nearly 

;  B.C.  26-2.  forty  years.     The  various  successive  masters  of  the  school 

A~M  3740  were  Cleanthes  of  Assos,  about  264  B.C.,  his  disciple  Chry- 

B.C.'  264.'  sippus  of  Soloe,  called  THE  PILLAR  OF  THE  PORCH,  who  died 

about  210  B.C.,  Zeno  of  Tarsus,  Diogenes  of  Babylon,  and 

Ij.c.'  2io4.'  Panetius  of  Rhodes,  the  friend    and  companion  of  Scipio 

Africanus. 

THE  NEW  ACADEMY. 

The  founder  of  this  school  of  Doubters  was  Arcesilaus  of  Pitane  in 
Eolia,  born  316  B.C.     His  school,  which  was  generally  known  as 
the  New  Academy,  was  sometimes  called  the  Middle.     It  was  found- 
ed principally  in  opposition  to  Grantor  and  Zeno.     The  most  illustri- 
ous master  of  this  school,   who  has  been  considered  by  some  the  foun- 
der of  a  third  academy,  was  Carneadesof  Cyrene,  born  about 
*B.C'.  2if.'  215  B.C.     His  system  was  one  of  Probabilities,  maintaining 
that  all  that  can  be  inferred  is  probability  in  three  degrees. 
He  attacked  the  theology  of  the  Stoics,  and  proved  that  we  cannot  apply 
to  the  Divinity  our  ideas  of  existence  and  morality,  exposing  the  falla- 
cies attending  the  practice  of  attributing  to  the  Deity  a  human  form. 

Philo  of  Larissa,  and  Antiochus  of  Ascalon,  who  died  69 
"Vc.3^'  B.C.,  in  some  degree  endeavoured  to  reconcile  the  two  oppos- 
ing systems  of  dogmatism  and  scepticism.     The  former  has 
been  considered  as  the  founder  of  a  fourth  academy,  and  the  latter, 
who  derived  from  conscience  an  argument  against  scepticism,  of  a 
fifth. 


APPENDIX. 


Greek  Races. 

The  earliest  populations  of  Greece  were  of  Pelasgic  origin,  who, 
long  before  the  period  of  authentic  history,  had  established  the  civiliz- 
ation of  communities  in  various  parts  of  the  northern  and  southern  di- 
visions of  that  country.  They  were  an  agricultural  people,  and  were 
the  true  founders  of  society  in  Greece.  At  a  date  still  anterior  to  the 
commencement  of  history,  the  more  barbarous  tribes  of  the  same  ori- 
gin, who  had  become  distinguished,  however,  by  another  name,  (Hel- 
lenes) dispossessed  the  Pelasgi,  expelling  numbers,  who  then  assumed 
the  wandering  character  by  which  they  were  subsequently  known,  and 
reducing  the  rest  to  various  grades  of  servitude.  For  a  long  time  the 
agricultural  character,  and  all  the  habits  of  the  early  civilization,  were 
identified  with  this  degraded  caste,  and  the  occupations  of  war  were 
the  sole  exercise  of  the  heroic  Hellenes.  With  this  begins  the  Heroic 
or  Epic  period  of  Greece. 

The  affinity  of  all  the  tribes  of  this  common  race  was  represented 
after  the  symbolical  fashion  of  the  Greeks,  by  a  traditionary  descent 
from  a  common  ancestor,  (Hellen,)  whose  name  was  obviously  derived 
in  after  times  from  that  of  the  race  whose  origin  it  was  intended  sym- 
bolically to  represent. 

The  Hellenic  race,  which  may  be  traced  originally  from  Thessaly, 
was  spread  at  the  commencement  of  the  period  of  authentic  history 
over  the  greater  part  of  Greece,  although  its  various  inhabitants  were 
not  designated  collectively  by  the  name  of  Hellenes  till  a  much  later 
era. 

The  symbolical  representation  of  the  whole  race  as  descended  from 
one  man,  (Hellen,)  was  carried  out  in  the  deduction  of  the  various  sub- 
divisions or  secondary  races.  Thus  the  JEolians  were  all  traced  in 
the  genealogical  tradition  to  ^Solus,  the  son  of  Hellen,  and  the  Dorians 
to  another  son,  Dorus,  while  the  lonians,  who  certainly  entered  the 
Hellenic  system  later,  and  whose  Pelasgic  origin  was  acknowledged 
in  the  time  of  Herodotus,  were  deduced  from  Ion,  the  son  of  Xuthus, 
and  grandson  of  Hellen. 

Before  the  great  revolution  attending  the  Doric  conquest  of  the  Pe- 
loponnesus, these  races  were  distributed  generally  over  the  country 
thus — 

The  jEoLiANS  possessed  so  much  of  Thessaly  as  was  Hellenic, 
Bceotia,  Acarnania,  Phocis,  Locris,  and  the  Peloponnesus,  with  the 
exception  of  that  portion  which  was  subsequently  called  Achaia. 

The  DORIANS  occupied,  as  their  proper  country,  a  small  region  be- 
tween Locris,  Italia  and  Thessaly,  separated  from  the  latter  by  the 
range  of  Mount  CEta. 

The  IONIANS  were  limited  to  Attica,  Mcgaris,  and  the  northern  coast 
of  the  Peloponnesus. 

About  80  years  after  the  Trojan  war,  began  the  revolution  alluded 
to  above,  and  which  lasting  upwards  of  150  years,  resulted  in  chang- 
ing entirely  the  settlements  of  the  different  races.  The  Dorians,  assist- 
ed by  the  ^Etolians,  expelled  or  subdued  the  ^Eolic  populations  of  the 
Peloponnesus;  extending  their  conquests  over  the  adjacent  islands  and 


GRECIAN     SETTLEMENTS.  153 

the  neighbouring  Megaris.  They  had  before  established  in  their 
progress  new  and  powerful  settlements  in  Bceotia,  Locris  and  Euboea. 
The  JEolians,  thus  driven  from  their  seats,  became  in  their  turn 
aggressors,  and  expelling  the  lonians  from  the  northern  coast  of  the 
Peloponnesus,  (called  until  that  time  /Egialus,)  took  up  their  perma- 
nent abode  in  that  region,  which  assumed  from  them,  and  ever  after 
retained,  the  name  of  Achaia. 

The  important  changes  effected  by  the  extensive  movements  of  the 
Doric  people  are  identified  in  the  poetic  legends  with  the  story  of  the 
Heraclidae,  their  expulsion  from  the  Peloponnesus  by  Eurystheus, 
their  reception  by  ^Egimius,  king  of  the  Dorians,  their  return  to  the 
Peloponnesus  with  the  Dorians  as  allies,  and  their  expulsion  of  the 
Pelopidae. 

GRECIAN  SETTLEMENTS  IN  ASIA. 

Like  all  the  incidents  connected  with  the  early  civilization  of  the 
Greeks,  the  Hellenic  settlements  in  Asia  Minor  received  a  poetical 
and  semi-mythological  colouring.  They  were  connected  with  the 
traditions  of  the  Heraclidae,  and  interwoven  with  them  into  one  syste- 
matic narration.  The  flight  of  the  lonians  from  jEjialus,  (Achaia,) 
and  their  reception  by  their  brothers  of  Attica,  occasioned  naturally  an 
increase  of  population  in  that  state  beyond  the  means  of  support ;  and 
this  increase,  occurring  at  a  moment  of  political  excitement  arising 
out  of  the  decline  of  the  kingly  office,  rendered  a  migration  at  once 
necessary  to  the  mass  of  the  people,  and  acceptable  to  the  malcon- 
tents. Headed  by  Penthilus,  a  large  body  of  lonians,  crossing  over 
into  Asia,  established  themselves  on  the  coast  of  Mysia,  in  that  part 
which  their  frequent  piratical  expeditions,  and  their  long  wars,  repre- 
sented poetically  in  the  legend  of  the  Siege  of  Troy,  had  made  known 
to  the  Greeks.  These  lonians,  however,  did  not  compose  the  mass  of 
the  migrating  body,  for  the  ./Eolians,  following  the  fortunes  of  their 
prince  in  greater  numbers,  attached  themselves  to  the  expedition.  This 
is  called  the  Mouc  MIGRATION,  and  the  portion  of  Asia  Minor  thus 
occupied  assumed  the  name  of  ^EOLIA  In  this  legend  the  influence  of 
the  ^Eolian  prince  Penthilus  represents  probably  nothing  else  than 
the  predominance  of  the  jEolic  race  in  the  establishment  of  the  colony. 

About  sixty  years  afterward,  the  same  causes  still  operating  to  produce 
an  unnatural  increase  of  population  in  Attica,  and  the  final  abolition  of 
the  kingly  office,  induced  a  second  migration.  This  was  headed  by 
Nileus,  tho  son  of  Codrus.  He  conducted  large  numbers,  whom  want, 
or  dissatisfaction  at  the  political  changes  rendered  willing  to  undergo 
the  dangers  and  difficulties  of  migration.  The  example  of  the  JEoli- 
ans  naturally  directed  them  to  the  opposite  coast  of  Asia,  and  crossing 
the  ^Egean,  they  established  themselves  south  of  ^Eolia,  along  the 
coasts  of  Lydia  and  a  part  of  Caria.  From  them  this  region  was  call- 
ed Ionia. 

The  success  of  the  Dorians  in  the  Peloponnesus  had  the  effect  of 
putting  into  motion  large  bodies  of  that  race  from  their  original  seats, 
at  first,  and  afterwards  from  the  Peloponnesus  itself,  where  they  found 

20 


154  HELLENIC     COLONIES. 

the  most  advantageous  places  pre-occupied  by  others  of  their  own  race. 
It  was  not  until  many  attempts  had  been  made  inefficaciously,  that  they 
succeeded  in  reducing  Megan's  ;  and  to  their  ill  success  in  their  first 
efforts  directed  to  this  end,  has  been  ascribed  the  Doric  migration  to 
Asia.  It  is  natural  to  suppose,  however,  that  without  this  incentive, 
the  example  of  the  yEoliansand  lonians,  and  the  inducements  of  an 
easy  conquest  and  a  fertile  country,  would  have  allured  thither  a  peo- 
ple so  restless  as  the  Dorians.  The  only  portion  of  the  western  coast 
of  Asia  Minor  which  remained  unoccupied,  was  that  which  extended 
south  from  Ionia  in  Caria,  to  the  borders  of  Lycia.  Here  then,  the 
Dorians  established  themselves,  imparting  their  name  to  the  country; 
and  thus  terminated  the  line  of  Greek  colonies  in  Asia,  from  the  Hel- 
lespont to  the  Mediterranean.  This  last  migration  was  either  attend- 
ed or  followed  by  the  subjugation  of  the  intervening  islands,  that  is  to 
say,  Cythera,  Thera,  Crete,  Rhodes,  &c. 

HELLENIC  COLONIES  IN  ITALY; 

The  name  of  Magna  Grecia  applied  to  that  part  of  Italy  in  which  these 
settlements  were  effected  is  testimony  of  their  number  and  importance, 
yet  no  accurate  and  systematic  account  of  their  origin,  deduced  from  any 
early  authority,  has  come  down  to  our  time.  Sybaris,  Crotona,  Meta- 
pontum,  and  Caulon,  were  among  the  earliest  and  most  celebrated  of  these 
colonies.  They  were  founded  about  720  B.C.,  by  the  Achaians,  who 
were  soon  followed  by  a  Doric  colony  which  settled  at  Tarentum. 
Locri  and  Rhegium  were  founded  about  the  same  time,  most  probably 
by  Achaians,  that  is  to  say,  Locri  by  the  Opuntii,  and  Rhegium  by 
the  Messenians  and  Zancleans.  It  was  not  until  a  later  period  that 
the  lonians  establishecflhe  colonies  ofSiris  and  Scyllatium. 

Heraclea,  the  seat  of  the  general  council  of  the  Greek  states,  was 
a  Doric  colony,  founded  by  the  Tarentines  after  the  destruction  of 
Siris,  42S  B.C.  To  these  colonies  must  be  added  the  important  towns 
of  Velia  and  Thurii;  the  former  founded  by  the  lonians  of  Phocea, 
and  the  latter  by  Attics  (lonians)  in  the  time,  and  at  the  suggestion  of 
Pericles. 

But  fir  before  all  these  were  the  Doric  colonies  in  Sicily.  The  first 
and  greatest  of  them  wns  Syracuse,  founded  l.y  one  of  the  Hrraclidae 
from  Corinth,  famous  in  her  history,  and  powerful  as  the  mother  city 
of  Agrigentum,  Ca marina,  &c. 

The  Dorians,  besides  the»ir  settlements  in  Europe  and  Asia,  had  es- 
tablished u  flourishing  colony  in  Africa,  by  the  600th  year  B.C.  It 
was  called  Cyrene,  and  very  soon  became  strong  enough  to  contend 
with  the  kingdoms  of  Egypt  and  Lybia. 


ERRATA. 

In  LECTURE  I.  page  8,  line  21  from  top,  for  3150  read  3250. 
"         "  page  9,  line  16  from  bottom,  for  2383  read  3283. 

"         "      II.  page  21,  line  9  from  bottom,  for  2573  read  3573. 
"         "      II.  page  26,  line  15  from  top,  for  Sparta  read  ATHENS. 

In  the  Introduction  to  Ancient  Geography,  p.  3,  line  8  from  top,  for  Pelopennesus  read  Peloponnesus. 
"  "  "  "  same  page,  line  3  from  bottom,  for  Selencidie  read  Seleucidx. 

"  "  "  "  same  page,  bottom  line,  for  Saleucia  read  Seleucia. 

«'  "  "  "  page  5,  lines  18  and  20  from  top,  for  Eubca  rend  EUBOEA. 

In  the  Hebrew  History,  page  29,  line  4  from  top,  for  2430  read  2433. 
In  the  History  of  Egypt,  page  79,  line  1 1  from  top,  for  Alexander  read  AUGUSTUS. 
In  the  heading  of  ihe  Chronological  Index,  p.  86,  for— A  M.  3750  to  4554,  read  3250  to  4004. 
In  the  Roman  History,  page  107,  lines  2  and  4  from  bottom,  for  JWaximus  read  .M  A  xi  M  INTS. 

"  "  "      page  108,  line  17  from  top,  Valerian  should  be  Valerian. 

In  the  Table  of  the  Kings  of  France,  page  135,  line  11  from  bottom,  Philip  1st.  1(108,  should  be  lORO. 

"          "  "  "      page  136,  line  11  from  top,  ill  the  heading,  191  years  should  be 

91  years. 

"         '<  ' "  "      same  page,  before  Louis  XIV.  should  be  inserted  A.D.  1700. 

55=  There  maybe  a  few  others,  which  it  was  impossible  to  avoid  in  a  first  edition. 


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